# Generic functions: PEP 695 syntax

```toml
[environment]
python-version = "3.12"
```

## Typevar must be used at least twice

If you're only using a typevar for a single parameter, you don't need the typevar — just use
`object` (or the typevar's upper bound):

```py
# TODO: error, should be (x: object)
def typevar_not_needed[T](x: T) -> None:
    pass

# TODO: error, should be (x: int)
def bounded_typevar_not_needed[T: int](x: T) -> None:
    pass
```

Typevars are only needed if you use them more than once. For instance, to specify that two
parameters must both have the same type:

```py
def two_params[T](x: T, y: T) -> T:
    return x
```

or to specify that a return value is the same as a parameter:

```py
def return_value[T](x: T) -> T:
    return x
```

Each typevar must also appear _somewhere_ in the parameter list:

```py
def absurd[T]() -> T:
    # There's no way to construct a T!
    raise ValueError("absurd")
```

## Inferring generic function parameter types

If the type of a generic function parameter is a typevar, then we can infer what type that typevar
is bound to at each call site.

```py
def f[T](x: T) -> T:
    return x

reveal_type(f(1))  # revealed: Literal[1]
reveal_type(f(1.0))  # revealed: float
reveal_type(f(True))  # revealed: Literal[True]
reveal_type(f("string"))  # revealed: Literal["string"]
```

## Inferring “deep” generic parameter types

The matching up of call arguments and discovery of constraints on typevars can be a recursive
process for arbitrarily-nested generic classes and protocols in parameters.

TODO: Note that we can currently only infer a specialization for a generic protocol when the
argument _explicitly_ implements the protocol by listing it as a base class.

```py
from typing import Protocol, TypeVar

S = TypeVar("S")

class CanIndex(Protocol[S]):
    def __getitem__(self, index: int, /) -> S: ...

class ExplicitlyImplements[T](CanIndex[T]):
    def __getitem__(self, index: int, /) -> T:
        raise NotImplementedError

class SubProtocol[T](CanIndex[T], Protocol): ...

def takes_in_list[T](x: list[T]) -> list[T]:
    return x

def takes_in_protocol[T](x: CanIndex[T]) -> T:
    return x[0]

def deep_list(x: list[str]) -> None:
    reveal_type(takes_in_list(x))  # revealed: list[str]
    reveal_type(takes_in_protocol(x))  # revealed: str

def deeper_list(x: list[set[str]]) -> None:
    reveal_type(takes_in_list(x))  # revealed: list[set[str]]
    reveal_type(takes_in_protocol(x))  # revealed: set[str]

def deep_explicit(x: ExplicitlyImplements[str]) -> None:
    reveal_type(takes_in_protocol(x))  # revealed: str

def deeper_explicit(x: ExplicitlyImplements[set[str]]) -> None:
    reveal_type(takes_in_protocol(x))  # revealed: set[str]

def deep_subprotocol(x: SubProtocol[str]) -> None:
    reveal_type(takes_in_protocol(x))  # revealed: str

def deeper_subprotocol(x: SubProtocol[set[str]]) -> None:
    reveal_type(takes_in_protocol(x))  # revealed: set[str]

def itself(x: CanIndex[str]) -> None:
    reveal_type(takes_in_protocol(x))  # revealed: str

def deep_itself(x: CanIndex[set[str]]) -> None:
    reveal_type(takes_in_protocol(x))  # revealed: set[str]

def takes_in_type[T](x: type[T]) -> type[T]:
    return x

reveal_type(takes_in_type(int))  # revealed: type[int]
```

This also works when passing in arguments that are subclasses of the parameter type.

```py
class Sub(list[int]): ...
class GenericSub[T](list[T]): ...

reveal_type(takes_in_list(Sub()))  # revealed: list[int]
reveal_type(takes_in_protocol(Sub()))  # revealed: int

reveal_type(takes_in_list(GenericSub[str]()))  # revealed: list[str]
reveal_type(takes_in_protocol(GenericSub[str]()))  # revealed: str

class ExplicitSub(ExplicitlyImplements[int]): ...
class ExplicitGenericSub[T](ExplicitlyImplements[T]): ...

reveal_type(takes_in_protocol(ExplicitSub()))  # revealed: int
reveal_type(takes_in_protocol(ExplicitGenericSub[str]()))  # revealed: str
```

## Inferring tuple parameter types

```py
def takes_mixed_tuple_suffix[T](x: tuple[int, bytes, *tuple[str, ...], T, int]) -> T:
    return x[-2]

def takes_mixed_tuple_prefix[T](x: tuple[int, T, *tuple[str, ...], bool, int]) -> T:
    return x[1]

def _(x: tuple[int, bytes, *tuple[str, ...], bool, int]):
    reveal_type(takes_mixed_tuple_suffix(x))  # revealed: bool
    reveal_type(takes_mixed_tuple_prefix(x))  # revealed: bytes

reveal_type(takes_mixed_tuple_suffix((1, b"foo", "bar", "baz", True, 42)))  # revealed: Literal[True]
reveal_type(takes_mixed_tuple_prefix((1, b"foo", "bar", "baz", True, 42)))  # revealed: Literal[b"foo"]

def takes_fixed_tuple[T](x: tuple[T, int]) -> T:
    return x[0]

def _(x: tuple[str, int]):
    reveal_type(takes_fixed_tuple(x))  # revealed: str

reveal_type(takes_fixed_tuple((True, 42)))  # revealed: Literal[True]

def takes_homogeneous_tuple[T](x: tuple[T, ...]) -> T:
    return x[0]

def _(x: tuple[str, int], y: tuple[bool, ...], z: tuple[int, str, *tuple[range, ...], bytes]):
    reveal_type(takes_homogeneous_tuple(x))  # revealed: str | int
    reveal_type(takes_homogeneous_tuple(y))  # revealed: bool
    reveal_type(takes_homogeneous_tuple(z))  # revealed: int | str | range | bytes

reveal_type(takes_homogeneous_tuple((42,)))  # revealed: Literal[42]
reveal_type(takes_homogeneous_tuple((42, 43)))  # revealed: Literal[42, 43]
```

## Inferring a bound typevar

<!-- snapshot-diagnostics -->

```py
from typing_extensions import reveal_type

def f[T: int](x: T) -> T:
    return x

reveal_type(f(1))  # revealed: Literal[1]
reveal_type(f(True))  # revealed: Literal[True]
# error: [invalid-argument-type]
reveal_type(f("string"))  # revealed: Unknown
```

## Inferring a constrained typevar

<!-- snapshot-diagnostics -->

```py
from typing_extensions import reveal_type

def f[T: (int, None)](x: T) -> T:
    return x

reveal_type(f(1))  # revealed: int
reveal_type(f(True))  # revealed: int
reveal_type(f(None))  # revealed: None
# error: [invalid-argument-type]
reveal_type(f("string"))  # revealed: Unknown
```

## Typevar constraints

If a type parameter has an upper bound, that upper bound constrains which types can be used for that
typevar. This effectively adds the upper bound as an intersection to every appearance of the typevar
in the function.

```py
def good_param[T: int](x: T) -> None:
    reveal_type(x)  # revealed: T@good_param
```

If the function is annotated as returning the typevar, this means that the upper bound is _not_
assignable to that typevar, since return types are contravariant. In `bad`, we can infer that
`x + 1` has type `int`. But `T` might be instantiated with a narrower type than `int`, and so the
return value is not guaranteed to be compatible for all `T: int`.

```py
def good_return[T: int](x: T) -> T:
    return x

def bad_return[T: int](x: T) -> T:
    # error: [invalid-return-type] "Return type does not match returned value: expected `T@bad_return`, found `int`"
    return x + 1
```

## All occurrences of the same typevar have the same type

If a typevar appears multiple times in a function signature, all occurrences have the same type.

```py
def different_types[T, S](cond: bool, t: T, s: S) -> T:
    if cond:
        return t
    else:
        # error: [invalid-return-type] "Return type does not match returned value: expected `T@different_types`, found `S@different_types`"
        return s

def same_types[T](cond: bool, t1: T, t2: T) -> T:
    if cond:
        return t1
    else:
        return t2
```

## All occurrences of the same constrained typevar have the same type

The above is true even when the typevars are constrained. Here, both `int` and `str` have `__add__`
methods that are compatible with the return type, so the `return` expression is always well-typed:

```py
def same_constrained_types[T: (int, str)](t1: T, t2: T) -> T:
    return t1 + t2

def chained_constrained_types[T: (int, float)](t1: T, t2: T, t3: T) -> T:
    return (t1 + t2) * t3

def typevar_times_literal[T: (int, float)](t: T) -> T:
    return t * 2

def literal_times_typevar[T: (int, float)](t: T) -> T:
    return 2 * t

def negate_typevar[T: (int, float)](t: T) -> T:
    return -t

def positive_typevar[T: (int, float)](t: T) -> T:
    return +t
```

Unary operations that are not supported by all constraints should error:

```py
def invert_typevar[T: (int, float)](t: T) -> int:
    # error: [unsupported-operator] "Unary operator `~` is not supported for object of type `T@invert_typevar`"
    return ~t
```

This is _not_ the same as a union type, because of this additional constraint that the two
occurrences have the same type. In `unions_are_different`, `t1` and `t2` might have different types,
and an `int` and a `str` cannot be added together:

```py
def unions_are_different(t1: int | str, t2: int | str) -> int | str:
    # error: [unsupported-operator] "Operator `+` is not supported between two objects of type `int | str`"
    return t1 + t2
```

## Typevar inference is a unification problem

When inferring typevar assignments in a generic function call, we cannot simply solve constraints
eagerly for each parameter in turn. We must solve a unification problem involving all of the
parameters simultaneously.

```py
def two_params[T](x: T, y: T) -> T:
    return x

reveal_type(two_params("a", "b"))  # revealed: Literal["a", "b"]
reveal_type(two_params("a", 1))  # revealed: Literal["a", 1]
```

When one of the parameters is a union, we attempt to find the smallest specialization that satisfies
all of the constraints.

```py
def union_param[T](x: T | None) -> T:
    if x is None:
        raise ValueError
    return x

reveal_type(union_param("a"))  # revealed: Literal["a"]
reveal_type(union_param(1))  # revealed: Literal[1]
reveal_type(union_param(None))  # revealed: Unknown

def _(x: int | None):
    reveal_type(union_param(x))  # revealed: int
```

```py
def union_and_nonunion_params[T](x: T | int, y: T) -> T:
    return y

reveal_type(union_and_nonunion_params(1, "a"))  # revealed: Literal["a"]
reveal_type(union_and_nonunion_params("a", "a"))  # revealed: Literal["a"]
reveal_type(union_and_nonunion_params(1, 1))  # revealed: Literal[1]
reveal_type(union_and_nonunion_params(3, 1))  # revealed: Literal[1]
reveal_type(union_and_nonunion_params("a", 1))  # revealed: Literal["a", 1]
```

This also works if the typevar has a bound:

```py
def accepts_t_or_int[T_str: str](x: T_str | int) -> T_str:
    raise NotImplementedError

reveal_type(accepts_t_or_int("a"))  # revealed: Literal["a"]
reveal_type(accepts_t_or_int(1))  # revealed: Unknown

class Unrelated: ...

# error: [invalid-argument-type] "Argument type `Unrelated` does not satisfy upper bound `str` of type variable `T_str`"
reveal_type(accepts_t_or_int(Unrelated()))  # revealed: Unknown

def accepts_t_or_list_of_t[T: str](x: T | list[T]) -> T:
    raise NotImplementedError

reveal_type(accepts_t_or_list_of_t("a"))  # revealed: Literal["a"]
# error: [invalid-argument-type] "Argument type `Literal[1]` does not satisfy upper bound `str` of type variable `T`"
reveal_type(accepts_t_or_list_of_t(1))  # revealed: Unknown

def _(list_ofstr: list[str], list_of_int: list[int]):
    reveal_type(accepts_t_or_list_of_t(list_ofstr))  # revealed: str

    # TODO: the error message here could be improved by referring to the second union element
    # error: [invalid-argument-type] "Argument type `list[int]` does not satisfy upper bound `str` of type variable `T`"
    reveal_type(accepts_t_or_list_of_t(list_of_int))  # revealed: Unknown
```

Here, we make sure that `S` is solved as `Literal[1]` instead of a union of the two literals, which
would also be a valid solution:

```py
def tuple_param[T, S](x: T | S, y: tuple[T, S]) -> tuple[T, S]:
    return y

reveal_type(tuple_param("a", ("a", 1)))  # revealed: tuple[Literal["a"], Literal[1]]
reveal_type(tuple_param(1, ("a", 1)))  # revealed: tuple[Literal["a"], Literal[1]]
```

When a union parameter contains generic classes like `P[T] | Q[T]`, we can infer the typevar from
the actual argument even for non-final classes.

```py
class P[T]:
    x: T  # invariant

class Q[T]:
    x: T  # invariant

def extract_t[T](x: P[T] | Q[T]) -> T:
    raise NotImplementedError

reveal_type(extract_t(P[int]()))  # revealed: int
reveal_type(extract_t(Q[str]()))  # revealed: str
```

Passing anything else results in an error:

```py
# error: [invalid-argument-type]
reveal_type(extract_t([1, 2]))  # revealed: Unknown
```

This also works when different union elements have different typevars:

```py
def extract_both[T, S](x: P[T] | Q[S]) -> tuple[T, S]:
    raise NotImplementedError

reveal_type(extract_both(P[int]()))  # revealed: tuple[int, Unknown]
reveal_type(extract_both(Q[str]()))  # revealed: tuple[Unknown, str]
```

Inference also works when passing subclasses of the generic classes in the union.

```py
class SubP[T](P[T]):
    pass

class SubQ[T](Q[T]):
    pass

reveal_type(extract_t(SubP[int]()))  # revealed: int
reveal_type(extract_t(SubQ[str]()))  # revealed: str

reveal_type(extract_both(SubP[int]()))  # revealed: tuple[int, Unknown]
reveal_type(extract_both(SubQ[str]()))  # revealed: tuple[Unknown, str]
```

When a type is a subclass of both `P` and `Q` with different specializations, we cannot infer a
single type for `T` in `extract_t`, because `P` and `Q` are invariant. However, we can still infer
both types in a call to `extract_both`:

```py
class PandQ(P[int], Q[str]):
    pass

# TODO: Ideally, we would return `Unknown` here.
# error: [invalid-argument-type]
reveal_type(extract_t(PandQ()))  # revealed: int | str

reveal_type(extract_both(PandQ()))  # revealed: tuple[int, str]
```

When non-generic types are part of the union, we can still infer typevars for the remaining generic
types:

```py
def extract_optional_t[T](x: None | P[T]) -> T:
    raise NotImplementedError

reveal_type(extract_optional_t(None))  # revealed: Unknown
reveal_type(extract_optional_t(P[int]()))  # revealed: int
```

Passing anything else results in an error:

```py
# error: [invalid-argument-type]
reveal_type(extract_optional_t(Q[str]()))  # revealed: Unknown
```

If the union contains contains parent and child of a generic class, we ideally pick the union
element that is more precise:

```py
class Base[T]:
    x: T

class Sub[T](Base[T]): ...

def f[T](t: Base[T] | Sub[T | None]) -> T:
    raise NotImplementedError

reveal_type(f(Base[int]()))  # revealed: int
# TODO: Should ideally be `str`
reveal_type(f(Sub[str | None]()))  # revealed: str | None
```

If we have a case like the following, where only one of the union elements matches due to the
typevar bound, we do not emit a specialization error:

```py
class P[T]:
    value: T

def f[I: int, S: str](t: P[I] | P[S]) -> tuple[I, S]:
    raise NotImplementedError

reveal_type(f(P[int]()))  # revealed: tuple[int, Unknown]
reveal_type(f(P[str]()))  # revealed: tuple[Unknown, str]
```

However, if we pass something that does not match _any_ union element, we do emit an error:

```py
# error: [invalid-argument-type]
reveal_type(f(P[bytes]()))  # revealed: tuple[Unknown, Unknown]
```

## Inferring nested generic function calls

We can infer type assignments in nested calls to multiple generic functions. If they use the same
type variable, we do not confuse the two; `T@f` and `T@g` have separate types in each example below.

```py
def f[T](x: T) -> tuple[T, int]:
    return (x, 1)

def g[T](x: T) -> T | None:
    return x

reveal_type(f(g("a")))  # revealed: tuple[Literal["a"] | None, int]
reveal_type(g(f("a")))  # revealed: tuple[Literal["a"], int] | None
```

## Passing generic functions to generic functions

```py
from typing import Callable

def invoke[A, B](fn: Callable[[A], B], value: A) -> B:
    return fn(value)

def identity[T](x: T) -> T:
    return x

def head[T](xs: list[T]) -> T:
    return xs[0]

reveal_type(invoke(identity, 1))  # revealed: Literal[1]

# TODO: this should be `Unknown | int`
reveal_type(invoke(head, [1, 2, 3]))  # revealed: Unknown
```

## Protocols as TypeVar bounds

Protocol types can be used as TypeVar bounds, just like nominal types.

```py
from typing import Any, Protocol
from ty_extensions import static_assert, is_assignable_to

class SupportsClose(Protocol):
    def close(self) -> None: ...

class ClosableFullyStaticProtocol(Protocol):
    x: int
    def close(self) -> None: ...

class ClosableNonFullyStaticProtocol(Protocol):
    x: Any
    def close(self) -> None: ...

class ClosableFullyStaticNominal:
    x: int
    def close(self) -> None: ...

class ClosableNonFullyStaticNominal:
    x: int
    def close(self) -> None: ...

class NotClosableProtocol(Protocol): ...
class NotClosableNominal: ...

def close_and_return[T: SupportsClose](x: T) -> T:
    x.close()
    return x

def f(
    a: SupportsClose,
    b: ClosableFullyStaticProtocol,
    c: ClosableNonFullyStaticProtocol,
    d: ClosableFullyStaticNominal,
    e: ClosableNonFullyStaticNominal,
    f: NotClosableProtocol,
    g: NotClosableNominal,
):
    reveal_type(close_and_return(a))  # revealed: SupportsClose
    reveal_type(close_and_return(b))  # revealed: ClosableFullyStaticProtocol
    reveal_type(close_and_return(c))  # revealed: ClosableNonFullyStaticProtocol
    reveal_type(close_and_return(d))  # revealed: ClosableFullyStaticNominal
    reveal_type(close_and_return(e))  # revealed: ClosableNonFullyStaticNominal

    # error: [invalid-argument-type] "does not satisfy upper bound"
    reveal_type(close_and_return(f))  # revealed: Unknown
    # error: [invalid-argument-type] "does not satisfy upper bound"
    reveal_type(close_and_return(g))  # revealed: Unknown
```

## Opaque decorators don't affect typevar binding

Inside the body of a generic function, we should be able to see that the typevars bound by that
function are in fact bound by that function. This requires being able to see the enclosing
function's _undecorated_ type and signature, especially in the case where a gradually typed
decorator "hides" the function type from outside callers.

```py
from typing import cast, Any, Callable

def opaque_decorator(f: Any) -> Any:
    return f

def transparent_decorator[F: Callable[..., Any]](f: F) -> F:
    return f

@opaque_decorator
def decorated[T](t: T) -> None:
    # error: [redundant-cast]
    reveal_type(cast(T, t))  # revealed: T@decorated

@transparent_decorator
def decorated[T](t: T) -> None:
    # error: [redundant-cast]
    reveal_type(cast(T, t))  # revealed: T@decorated
```

## Solving TypeVars with upper bounds in unions

```py
class A: ...

class B[T: A]:
    x: T

def f[T: A](c: T | None):
    return None

def g[T: A](b: B[T]):
    return f(b.x)  # Fine
```

## Typevars in a union

```py
def takes_in_union[T](t: T | None) -> T:
    raise NotImplementedError

def takes_in_bigger_union[T](t: T | int | None) -> T:
    raise NotImplementedError

def _(x: str | None) -> None:
    reveal_type(takes_in_union(x))  # revealed: str
    reveal_type(takes_in_bigger_union(x))  # revealed: str

def _(x: str | int | None) -> None:
    reveal_type(takes_in_union(x))  # revealed: str | int
    reveal_type(takes_in_bigger_union(x))  # revealed: str
```

This is a regression test for an issue that surfaced in the primer report of an early version of
<https://github.com/astral-sh/ruff/pull/19811>, where we failed to solve the `TypeVar` here due to
the fact that it only appears in the function's type annotations as part of a union:

```py
def f[T: (str, bytes)](suffix: T | None, prefix: T | None):
    return None

def g(x: str):
    f(prefix=x, suffix=".tar.gz")
```

If the type variable is present multiple times in the union, we choose the correct union element to
infer against based on the argument type:

```py
def h[T](x: list[T] | dict[T, T]) -> T | None: ...
def _(x: list[int], y: dict[int, int]):
    reveal_type(h(x))  # revealed: int | None
    reveal_type(h(y))  # revealed: int | None
```

## Bounded typevar call context through a union

Regression test for an `invalid-assignment` false positive: `list(items)` should be assignable to
`list[str] | list[int]` when `items` has type `list[T]` and `T: int`.

```py
def test[T: int](items: list[T]) -> list[T]:
    ok1: list[str] | list[int] = list(items)
    ok2: list[int] | list[str] = list(items)

    bad: list[str] | list[bytes] = list(items)  # error: [invalid-assignment]
    return items
```

## Nested functions see typevars bound in outer function

```py
from typing import overload

def outer[T](t: T) -> None:
    def inner[T](t: T) -> None: ...

    inner(t)

@overload
def overloaded_outer() -> None: ...
@overload
def overloaded_outer[T](t: T) -> None: ...
def overloaded_outer[T](t: T | None = None) -> None:
    def inner(t: T) -> None: ...

    if t is not None:
        inner(t)

def outer[T](t: T) -> None:
    def inner[S](inner_t: T, s: S) -> tuple[T, S]:
        return inner_t, s
    reveal_type(inner(t, 1))  # revealed: tuple[T@outer, Literal[1]]

    inner("wrong", 1)  # error: [invalid-argument-type]
```

## Unpacking a TypeVar

We can infer precise heterogeneous types from the result of an unpacking operation applied to a
TypeVar if the TypeVar's upper bound is a type with a precise tuple spec:

```py
from dataclasses import dataclass
from typing import NamedTuple, Final

def f[T: tuple[int, str]](x: T) -> T:
    a, b = x
    reveal_type(a)  # revealed: int
    reveal_type(b)  # revealed: str
    return x

@dataclass
class Team[T: tuple[int, str]]:
    employees: list[T]

def x[T: tuple[int, str]](team: Team[T]) -> Team[T]:
    age, name = team.employees[0]
    reveal_type(age)  # revealed: int
    reveal_type(name)  # revealed: str
    return team

class Age(int): ...
class Name(str): ...

class Employee(NamedTuple):
    age: Age
    name: Name

EMPLOYEES: Final = (Employee(name=Name("alice"), age=Age(42)),)
team = Team(employees=list(EMPLOYEES))
reveal_type(team.employees)  # revealed: list[Employee]
age, name = team.employees[0]
reveal_type(age)  # revealed: Age
reveal_type(name)  # revealed: Name
```

## `self` in PEP 695 generic methods

When a generic method uses a PEP 695 generic context, an implict or explicit annotation of
`self: Self` is still part of the full generic context:

```py
from typing import Self

class C:
    def explicit_self[T](self: Self, x: T) -> tuple[Self, T]:
        return self, x

    def implicit_self[T](self, x: T) -> tuple[Self, T]:
        return self, x

def _(x: int):
    reveal_type(C().explicit_self(x))  # revealed: tuple[C, int]

    reveal_type(C().implicit_self(x))  # revealed: tuple[C, int]
```

## `~T` is never assignable to `T`

```py
from ty_extensions import Not

def f[T](x: T, y: Not[T]) -> T:
    x = y  # error: [invalid-assignment]
    y = x  # error: [invalid-assignment]
    return x
```

## `Callable` parameters

### Class constructors

We can recurse into the parameters and return values of `Callable` parameters to infer
specializations of a generic function.

```py
from typing import Any, Callable, NoReturn, overload, Self
from ty_extensions import generic_context, into_callable

def accepts_callable[**P, R](callable: Callable[P, R]) -> Callable[P, R]:
    return callable

def returns_int() -> int:
    raise NotImplementedError

# revealed: () -> int
reveal_type(into_callable(returns_int))
# revealed: () -> int
reveal_type(accepts_callable(returns_int))
# revealed: int
reveal_type(accepts_callable(returns_int)())

class ClassWithoutConstructor: ...

# revealed: () -> ClassWithoutConstructor
reveal_type(into_callable(ClassWithoutConstructor))
# revealed: () -> ClassWithoutConstructor
reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithoutConstructor))
# revealed: ClassWithoutConstructor
reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithoutConstructor)())

class ClassWithNew:
    def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs) -> Self:
        raise NotImplementedError

# revealed: (...) -> ClassWithNew
reveal_type(into_callable(ClassWithNew))
# revealed: (...) -> ClassWithNew
reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithNew))
# revealed: ClassWithNew
reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithNew)())

class ClassWithInit:
    def __init__(self) -> None: ...

# revealed: () -> ClassWithInit
reveal_type(into_callable(ClassWithInit))
# revealed: () -> ClassWithInit
reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithInit))
# revealed: ClassWithInit
reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithInit)())

class ClassWithNewAndInit:
    def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs) -> Self:
        raise NotImplementedError

    def __init__(self, x: int) -> None: ...

# TODO: We do not currently solve a common behavioral supertype for the two solutions of P.
# revealed: ((...) -> ClassWithNewAndInit) | ((x: int) -> ClassWithNewAndInit)
reveal_type(into_callable(ClassWithNewAndInit))
# TODO: revealed: ((...) -> ClassWithNewAndInit) | ((x: int) -> ClassWithNewAndInit)
# revealed: (...) -> ClassWithNewAndInit
reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithNewAndInit))
# revealed: ClassWithNewAndInit
reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithNewAndInit)())

class Meta(type):
    def __call__(cls, *args: Any, **kwargs: Any) -> NoReturn:
        raise NotImplementedError

class ClassWithNoReturnMetatype(metaclass=Meta):
    def __new__(cls, *args: Any, **kwargs: Any) -> Self:
        raise NotImplementedError

# TODO: The return types here are wrong, because we end up creating a constraint (Never ≤ R), which
# we confuse with "R has no lower bound".
# revealed: (...) -> Never
reveal_type(into_callable(ClassWithNoReturnMetatype))
# TODO: revealed: (...) -> Never
# revealed: (...) -> Unknown
reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithNoReturnMetatype))
# TODO: revealed: Never
# revealed: Unknown
reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithNoReturnMetatype)())

class Proxy: ...

class ClassWithIgnoredInit:
    def __new__(cls) -> Proxy:
        return Proxy()

    def __init__(self, x: int) -> None: ...

# revealed: () -> Proxy
reveal_type(into_callable(ClassWithIgnoredInit))
# revealed: () -> Proxy
reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithIgnoredInit))
# revealed: Proxy
reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithIgnoredInit)())

class ClassWithOverloadedInit[T]:
    t: T  # invariant

    @overload
    def __init__(self: "ClassWithOverloadedInit[int]", x: int) -> None: ...
    @overload
    def __init__(self: "ClassWithOverloadedInit[str]", x: str) -> None: ...
    def __init__(self, x: int | str) -> None: ...

# TODO: The old solver cannot handle this overloaded constructor. The ideal solution is that we
# would solve **P once, and map it to the entire overloaded signature of the constructor. This
# mapping would have to include the return types, since there are different return types for each
# overload. We would then also have to determine that R must be equal to the return type of **P's
# solution.

# revealed: Overload[[T](x: int) -> ClassWithOverloadedInit[int], [T](x: str) -> ClassWithOverloadedInit[str]]
reveal_type(into_callable(ClassWithOverloadedInit))
# TODO: revealed: Overload[(x: int) -> ClassWithOverloadedInit[int], (x: str) -> ClassWithOverloadedInit[str]]
# revealed: Overload[[T](x: int) -> ClassWithOverloadedInit[int] | ClassWithOverloadedInit[str], [T](x: str) -> ClassWithOverloadedInit[int] | ClassWithOverloadedInit[str]]
reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithOverloadedInit))
# TODO: revealed: ClassWithOverloadedInit[int]
# revealed: ClassWithOverloadedInit[int] | ClassWithOverloadedInit[str]
reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithOverloadedInit)(0))
# TODO: revealed: ClassWithOverloadedInit[str]
# revealed: ClassWithOverloadedInit[int] | ClassWithOverloadedInit[str]
reveal_type(accepts_callable(ClassWithOverloadedInit)(""))

class GenericClass[T]:
    t: T  # invariant

    def __new__(cls, x: list[T], y: list[T]) -> Self:
        raise NotImplementedError

def _(x: list[str]):
    # revealed: [T](x: list[T], y: list[T]) -> GenericClass[T]
    reveal_type(into_callable(GenericClass))
    # revealed: ty_extensions.GenericContext[T@GenericClass]
    reveal_type(generic_context(into_callable(GenericClass)))

    # revealed: [T](x: list[T], y: list[T]) -> GenericClass[T]
    reveal_type(accepts_callable(GenericClass))
    # revealed: ty_extensions.GenericContext[T@GenericClass]
    reveal_type(generic_context(accepts_callable(GenericClass)))

    # revealed: GenericClass[str]
    reveal_type(accepts_callable(GenericClass)(x, x))
```

### `Callable`s that return union types

```py
from typing import Callable

class Box[T]:
    def get(self) -> T:
        raise NotImplementedError

def my_iter[T](f: Callable[[], T | None]) -> Box[T]:
    return Box()

def get_int() -> int | None: ...

reveal_type(my_iter(get_int))  # revealed: Box[int]
```

### Don't include identical lower/upper bounds in type mapping multiple times

This is was a performance regression reported in
[ty#1968](https://github.com/astral-sh/ty/issues/1968). Before fixing this, we would see the
`U ≤ M1 | ... | M7` upper bound 7 times. Since we intersect upper bounds before recording a single
type mapping, we would perform 7 intersections. Each intersection would require 7^2 comparisons of
the `Mx` types. We now have a simple heuristics that avoids processing any identical lower or upper
bound more than once, since we know the extra copies cannot affect the result.

```py
from typing import Callable, Generic, TypeVar, Union

class M1: ...
class M2: ...
class M3: ...
class M4: ...
class M5: ...
class M6: ...
class M7: ...

Msg = Union[M1, M2, M3, M4, M5, M6, M7]

T = TypeVar("T")
U_co = TypeVar("U_co", covariant=True)

class Stream(Generic[T]):
    def apply(self, func: Callable[["Stream[T]"], "Stream[U_co]"]) -> "Stream[U_co]":
        return func(self)

TMsg = TypeVar("TMsg", bound=Msg)

class Builder(Generic[TMsg]):
    def build(self) -> Stream[TMsg]:
        stream: Stream[TMsg] = Stream()
        # `Stream` is invariant, so `Stream[Msg]` is not a supertype of `Stream[TMsg]`;
        # therefore `_handler` is not compatible with `apply` here.
        # error: [invalid-argument-type]
        # error: [invalid-assignment]
        stream = stream.apply(self._handler)
        return stream

    def _handler(self, stream: Stream[Msg]) -> Stream[Msg]:
        return stream
```

## Regressions

### Only consider fully static types as pivots for transitivity

This is a regression test for [ty#2371]. When working with constraint sets, we track transitive
relationships between the constraints in the set. For instance, in `S ≤ int ∧ int ≤ T`, we can infer
that `S ≤ T`. However, we should only consider fully static types when looking for a "pivot" for
this kind of transitive relationship. The same pattern does not hold for `S ≤ Any ∧ Any ≤ T`;
because the two `Any`s can materialize to different types, we cannot infer that `S ≤ T`.

We have lower level tests of this in [`type_properties/implies_subtype_of.md`][implies_subtype_of].
`functools.reduce` has a signature that exercises this behavior, as well, so we also include this
regression test.

```py
from functools import reduce

def _(keys: list[str]):
    # TODO: revealed: int
    # revealed: Unknown | Literal[0]
    reveal_type(reduce(lambda total, k: total + len(k), keys, 0))
```

## Passing a constrained TypeVar to a function expecting a compatible constrained TypeVar

A constrained TypeVar should be assignable to a different constrained TypeVar if each constraint of
the actual TypeVar is equivalent to at least one constraint of the formal TypeVar. This commonly
arises when wrapping functions from external packages that define private TypeVars with the same
constraints.

See: <https://github.com/astral-sh/ty/issues/2728>

```py
def callee[T: (int, str)](x: T) -> T:
    return x

def caller[S: (int, str)](x: S) -> S:
    return callee(x)

reveal_type(caller(1))  # revealed: int
reveal_type(caller("hello"))  # revealed: str
```

A constrained TypeVar with a subset of constraints is also compatible:

```py
def wide[T: (int, str, bytes)](x: T) -> T:
    return x

def narrow[S: (int, str)](x: S) -> S:
    return wide(x)

reveal_type(narrow(1))  # revealed: int
reveal_type(narrow("hello"))  # revealed: str
```

But a constrained TypeVar with constraints not satisfied by the formal TypeVar should still error:

```py
def target[T: (int, str)](x: T) -> T:
    return x

def source[U: (int, bytes)](x: U) -> U:
    return target(x)  # error: [invalid-argument-type]
```

We require equivalence rather than mere assignability when matching constraints. Constrained
TypeVars allow narrowing via `isinstance` checks in the function body, so a constraint that is a
strict subtype would be unsound. For example, a function constrained to `(int, str)` may narrow `T`
to `int` and return `int(x)`, which would violate a caller's `bool` constraint:

```py
def f[T: (int, str)](x: T) -> T:
    return x

def g[S: (bool, str)](x: S) -> S:
    return f(x)  # error: [invalid-argument-type]
```

[implies_subtype_of]: ../../type_properties/implies_subtype_of.md
[ty#2371]: https://github.com/astral-sh/ty/issues/2371
