"""
github.com/mikedh/trimesh
----------------------------

Library for importing, exporting and doing simple operations on triangular meshes.
"""

from . import ray
from . import util
from . import units
from . import poses
from . import graph
from . import sample
from . import repair
from . import convex
from . import remesh
from . import caching
from . import inertia
from . import boolean
from . import grouping
from . import geometry
from . import permutate
from . import proximity
from . import triangles
from . import curvature
from . import smoothing  # noqa
from . import comparison
from . import registration
from . import decomposition
from . import intersections
from . import transformations

from .visual import create_visual, TextureVisuals
from .exchange.export import export_mesh
from .constants import log, log_time, tol

from .scene import Scene
from .parent import Geometry3D

import copy
import warnings
import numpy as np


class Trimesh(Geometry3D):

    def __init__(self,
                 vertices=None,
                 faces=None,
                 face_normals=None,
                 vertex_normals=None,
                 face_colors=None,
                 vertex_colors=None,
                 face_attributes=None,
                 vertex_attributes=None,
                 metadata=None,
                 process=True,
                 validate=False,
                 merge_tex=None,
                 merge_norm=None,
                 use_embree=True,
                 initial_cache=None,
                 visual=None,
                 **kwargs):
        """
        A Trimesh object contains a triangular 3D mesh.

        Parameters
        ------------
        vertices : (n, 3) float
          Array of vertex locations
        faces : (m, 3) or (m, 4) int
          Array of triangular or quad faces (triangulated on load)
        face_normals : (m, 3) float
          Array of normal vectors corresponding to faces
        vertex_normals : (n, 3) float
          Array of normal vectors for vertices
        metadata : dict
          Any metadata about the mesh
        process : bool
          if True, Nan and Inf values will be removed
          immediately and vertices will be merged
        validate : bool
          If True, degenerate and duplicate faces will be
          removed immediately, and some functions will alter
          the mesh to ensure consistent results.
        use_embree : bool
          If True try to use pyembree raytracer.
          If pyembree is not available it will automatically fall
          back to a much slower rtree/numpy implementation
        initial_cache : dict
          A way to pass things to the cache in case expensive
          things were calculated before creating the mesh object.
        visual : ColorVisuals or TextureVisuals
          Assigned to self.visual
        """

        if initial_cache is None:
            initial_cache = {}

        # self._data stores information about the mesh which
        # CANNOT be regenerated.
        # in the base class all that is stored here is vertex and
        # face information
        # any data put into the store is converted to a TrackedArray
        # which is a subclass of np.ndarray that provides hash and crc
        # methods which can be used to detect changes in the array.
        self._data = caching.DataStore()

        # self._cache stores information about the mesh which CAN be
        # regenerated from self._data, but may be slow to calculate.
        # In order to maintain consistency
        # the cache is cleared when self._data.__hash__() changes
        self._cache = caching.Cache(
            id_function=self._data.__hash__,
            force_immutable=True)
        self._cache.update(initial_cache)

        # check for None only to avoid warning messages in subclasses
        if vertices is not None:
            # (n, 3) float, set of vertices
            self.vertices = vertices
        if faces is not None:
            # (m, 3) int of triangle faces, references self.vertices
            self.faces = faces

        # hold visual information about the mesh (vertex and face colors)
        if visual is None:
            self.visual = create_visual(
                face_colors=face_colors,
                vertex_colors=vertex_colors,
                mesh=self)
        else:
            self.visual = visual

        # normals are accessed through setters/properties and are regenerated
        # if dimensions are inconsistent, but can be set by the constructor
        # to avoid a substantial number of cross products
        if face_normals is not None:
            self.face_normals = face_normals

        # (n, 3) float of vertex normals, can be created from face normals
        if vertex_normals is not None:
            self.vertex_normals = vertex_normals

        # embree is a much, much faster raytracer written by Intel
        # if you have pyembree installed you should use it
        # although both raytracers were designed to have a common API
        if ray.has_embree and use_embree:
            self.ray = ray.ray_pyembree.RayMeshIntersector(self)
        else:
            # create a ray-mesh query object for the current mesh
            # initializing is very inexpensive and object is convenient to have.
            # On first query expensive bookkeeping is done (creation of r-tree),
            # and is cached for subsequent queries
            self.ray = ray.ray_triangle.RayMeshIntersector(self)

        # a quick way to get permuted versions of the current mesh
        self.permutate = permutate.Permutator(self)

        # convenience class for nearest point queries
        self.nearest = proximity.ProximityQuery(self)

        # store metadata about the mesh in a dictionary
        self.metadata = dict()
        # update the mesh metadata with passed metadata
        if isinstance(metadata, dict):
            self.metadata.update(metadata)
        elif metadata is not None:
            raise ValueError(
                'metadata should be a dict or None, got %s' % str(metadata))

        # Set the default center of mass and density
        self._density = 1.0
        self._center_mass = None

        # store per-face and per-vertex attributes which will
        # be updated when an update_faces call is made
        self.face_attributes = {}
        self.vertex_attributes = {}
        # use update to copy items
        if face_attributes is not None:
            self.face_attributes.update(face_attributes)
        if vertex_attributes is not None:
            self.vertex_attributes.update(vertex_attributes)

        # process will remove NaN and Inf values and merge vertices
        # if validate, will remove degenerate and duplicate faces
        if process or validate:
            self.process(validate=validate,
                         merge_tex=merge_tex,
                         merge_norm=merge_norm)

        # save reference to kwargs
        self._kwargs = kwargs

    def process(self,
                validate=False,
                merge_tex=None,
                merge_norm=None):
        """
        Do processing to make a mesh useful.

        Does this by:
            1) removing NaN and Inf values
            2) merging duplicate vertices
        If validate:
            3) Remove triangles which have one edge
               of their 2D oriented bounding box
               shorter than tol.merge
            4) remove duplicated triangles
            5) ensure triangles are consistently wound
               and normals face outwards

        Parameters
        ------------
        validate : bool
          Remove degenerate and duplicate faces.

        Returns
        ------------
        self: trimesh.Trimesh
          Current mesh
        """
        # if there are no vertices or faces exit early
        if self.is_empty:
            return self

        # avoid clearing the cache during operations
        with self._cache:
            self.remove_infinite_values()
            self.merge_vertices(merge_tex=merge_tex,
                                merge_norm=merge_norm)
            # if we're cleaning remove duplicate
            # and degenerate faces
            if validate:
                self.remove_duplicate_faces()
                self.remove_degenerate_faces()
                self.fix_normals()
        # since none of our process operations moved vertices or faces
        # we can keep face and vertex normals in the cache without recomputing
        # if faces or vertices have been removed, normals are validated before
        # being returned so there is no danger of inconsistent dimensions
        self._cache.clear(exclude={'face_normals',
                                   'vertex_normals'})
        self.metadata['processed'] = True
        return self

    @property
    def faces(self):
        """
        The faces of the mesh.

        This is regarded as core information which cannot be
        regenerated from cache and as such is stored in
        `self._data` which tracks the array for changes and
        clears cached values of the mesh altered.

        Returns
        ----------
        faces : (n, 3) int64
          References for `self.vertices` for triangles.
        """
        return self._data.get(
            'faces', np.empty(shape=(0, 3), dtype=np.int64))

    @faces.setter
    def faces(self, values):
        """
        Set the vertex indexes that make up triangular faces.

        Parameters
        --------------
        values : (n, 3) int64
          Indexes of self.vertices
        """
        if values is None or len(values) == 0:
            return self._data.data.pop('faces', None)
        if not (isinstance(values, np.ndarray) and values.dtype == np.int64):
            values = np.asanyarray(values, dtype=np.int64)

        # automatically triangulate quad faces
        if len(values.shape) == 2 and values.shape[1] != 3:
            log.info('triangulating faces')
            values = geometry.triangulate_quads(values)
        self._data['faces'] = values

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def faces_sparse(self):
        """
        A sparse matrix representation of the faces.

        Returns
        ----------
        sparse : scipy.sparse.coo_matrix
          Has properties:
          dtype : bool
          shape : (len(self.vertices), len(self.faces))
        """
        sparse = geometry.index_sparse(
            columns=len(self.vertices),
            indices=self.faces)
        return sparse

    @property
    def face_normals(self):
        """
        Return the unit normal vector for each face.

        If a face is degenerate and a normal can't be generated
        a zero magnitude unit vector will be returned for that face.

        Returns
        -----------
        normals : (len(self.faces), 3) np.float64
          Normal vectors of each face
        """
        # check shape of cached normals
        cached = self._cache['face_normals']
        # get faces from datastore
        if 'faces' in self._data:
            faces = self._data.data['faces']
        else:
            faces = None

        # if we have no faces exit early
        if faces is None or len(faces) == 0:
            return np.array([], dtype=np.int64).reshape((0, 3))

        # if the shape of cached normals equals the shape of faces return
        if np.shape(cached) == np.shape(faces):
            return cached

        # use cached triangle cross products to generate normals
        # this will always return the correct shape but some values
        # will be zero or an arbitrary vector if the inputs had
        # a cross product below machine epsilon
        normals, valid = triangles.normals(
            triangles=self.triangles,
            crosses=self.triangles_cross)

        # if all triangles are valid shape is correct
        if valid.all():
            # put calculated face normals into cache manually
            self._cache['face_normals'] = normals
            return normals

        # make a padded list of normals for correct shape
        padded = np.zeros((len(self.triangles), 3),
                          dtype=np.float64)
        padded[valid] = normals

        # put calculated face normals into cache manually
        self._cache['face_normals'] = padded

        return padded

    @face_normals.setter
    def face_normals(self, values):
        """
        Assign values to face normals.

        Parameters
        -------------
        values : (len(self.faces), 3) float
          Unit face normals
        """
        # if nothing passed exit
        if values is None:
            return
        # make sure candidate face normals are C-contiguous float
        values = np.asanyarray(
            values, order='C', dtype=np.float64)
        # face normals need to correspond to faces
        if len(values) == 0 or values.shape != self.faces.shape:
            log.debug('face_normals incorrect shape, ignoring!')
            return
        # check if any values are larger than tol.merge
        # don't set the normals if they are all zero
        ptp = values.ptp()
        if not np.isfinite(ptp):
            log.debug('face_normals contain NaN, ignoring!')
            return
        if ptp < tol.merge:
            log.debug('face_normals all zero, ignoring!')
            return

        # make sure the first few normals match the first few triangles
        check, valid = triangles.normals(
            self.vertices.view(np.ndarray)[self.faces[:20]])
        compare = np.zeros((len(valid), 3))
        compare[valid] = check
        if not np.allclose(compare, values[:20]):
            log.debug("face_normals didn't match triangles, ignoring!")
            return
        # otherwise store face normals
        self._cache['face_normals'] = values

    @property
    def vertices(self):
        """
        The vertices of the mesh.

        This is regarded as core information which cannot be
        generated from cache and as such is stored in self._data
        which tracks the array for changes and clears cached
        values of the mesh if this is altered.

        Returns
        ----------
        vertices : (n, 3) float
          Points in cartesian space referenced by self.faces
        """
        return self._data.get('vertices', np.empty(
            shape=(0, 3), dtype=np.float64))

    @vertices.setter
    def vertices(self, values):
        """
        Assign vertex values to the mesh.

        Parameters
        --------------
        values : (n, 3) float
          Points in space
        """
        self._data['vertices'] = np.asanyarray(
            values, order='C', dtype=np.float64)

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def vertex_normals(self):
        """
        The vertex normals of the mesh. If the normals were loaded
        we check to make sure we have the same number of vertex
        normals and vertices before returning them. If there are
        no vertex normals defined or a shape mismatch we  calculate
        the vertex normals from the mean normals of the faces the
        vertex is used in.

        Returns
        ----------
        vertex_normals : (n, 3) float
          Represents the surface normal at each vertex.
          Where n == len(self.vertices)
        """
        # make sure we have faces_sparse
        assert hasattr(self.faces_sparse, 'dot')
        vertex_normals = geometry.weighted_vertex_normals(
            vertex_count=len(self.vertices),
            faces=self.faces,
            face_normals=self.face_normals,
            face_angles=self.face_angles)
        return vertex_normals

    @vertex_normals.setter
    def vertex_normals(self, values):
        """
        Assign values to vertex normals.

        Parameters
        -------------
        values : (len(self.vertices), 3) float
          Unit normal vectors for each vertex
        """
        if values is not None:
            values = np.asanyarray(values,
                                   order='C',
                                   dtype=np.float64)
            if values.shape == self.vertices.shape:
                # check to see if they assigned all zeros
                if values.ptp() < tol.merge:
                    log.debug('vertex_normals are all zero!')
                self._cache['vertex_normals'] = values

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def vertex_faces(self):
        """
        A representation of the face indices that correspond to each vertex.

        Returns
        ----------
        vertex_faces : (n,m) int
          Each row contains the face indices that correspond to the given vertex,
          padded with -1 up to the max number of faces corresponding to any one vertex
          Where n == len(self.vertices), m == max number of faces for a single vertex
        """
        vertex_faces = geometry.vertex_face_indices(
            vertex_count=len(self.vertices),
            faces=self.faces,
            faces_sparse=self.faces_sparse)
        return vertex_faces

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def bounds(self):
        """
        The axis aligned bounds of the faces of the mesh.

        Returns
        -----------
        bounds : (2, 3) float or None
          Bounding box with [min, max] coordinates
          If mesh is empty will return None
        """
        # return bounds including ONLY referenced vertices
        in_mesh = self.vertices[self.referenced_vertices]
        # don't crash if we have no vertices referenced
        if len(in_mesh) == 0:
            return None
        # get mesh bounds with min and max
        return np.array([in_mesh.min(axis=0),
                         in_mesh.max(axis=0)])

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def extents(self):
        """
        The length, width, and height of the axis aligned
        bounding box of the mesh.

        Returns
        -----------
        extents : (3, ) float or None
          Array containing axis aligned [length, width, height]
          If mesh is empty returns None
        """
        # if mesh is empty return None
        if self.bounds is None:
            return None
        extents = self.bounds.ptp(axis=0)

        return extents

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def scale(self):
        """
        A metric for the overall scale of the mesh, the length of the
        diagonal of the axis aligned bounding box of the mesh.

        Returns
        ----------
        scale : float
          The length of the meshes AABB diagonal
        """
        # if mesh is empty just return no scale
        if self.extents is None:
            return 1.0
        # make sure we are returning python floats
        scale = float((self.extents ** 2).sum() ** .5)
        return scale

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def centroid(self):
        """
        The point in space which is the average of the triangle
        centroids weighted by the area of each triangle.

        This will be valid even for non-watertight meshes,
        unlike self.center_mass

        Returns
        ----------
        centroid : (3, ) float
          The average vertex weighted by face area
        """

        # use the centroid of each triangle weighted by
        # the area of the triangle to find the overall centroid
        try:
            centroid = np.average(self.triangles_center,
                                  weights=self.area_faces,
                                  axis=0)
        except BaseException:
            # if all triangles are zero-area weights will not work
            centroid = self.triangles_center.mean(axis=0)
        return centroid

    @property
    def center_mass(self):
        """
        The point in space which is the center of mass/volume.

        If the current mesh is not watertight this is meaningless
        garbage unless it was explicitly set.

        Returns
        -----------
        center_mass : (3, ) float
           Volumetric center of mass of the mesh
        """
        center_mass = self.mass_properties['center_mass']
        return center_mass

    @center_mass.setter
    def center_mass(self, cm):
        self._center_mass = cm
        self._cache.delete('mass_properties')

    @property
    def density(self):
        """
        The density of the mesh.

        Returns
        -----------
        density : float
          The density of the mesh.
        """
        density = self.mass_properties['density']
        return density

    @density.setter
    def density(self, value):
        """
        Set the density of the mesh.

        Parameters
        -------------
        density : float
          Specify the density of the mesh to be
          used in inertia calculations.
        """
        self._density = float(value)
        self._cache.delete('mass_properties')

    @property
    def volume(self):
        """
        Volume of the current mesh calculated using a surface
        integral. If the current mesh isn't watertight this is
        garbage.

        Returns
        ---------
        volume : float
          Volume of the current mesh
        """
        volume = self.mass_properties['volume']
        return volume

    @property
    def mass(self):
        """
        Mass of the current mesh, based on specified density and
        volume. If the current mesh isn't watertight this is garbage.

        Returns
        ---------
        mass : float
          Mass of the current mesh
        """
        mass = self.mass_properties['mass']
        return mass

    @property
    def moment_inertia(self):
        """
        Return the moment of inertia matrix of the current mesh.
        If mesh isn't watertight this is garbage. The returned
        moment of inertia is *axis aligned* at the mesh's center
        of mass `mesh.center_mass`. If you want the moment at any
        other frame including the origin call:
        `mesh.moment_inertia_frame`

        Returns
        ---------
        inertia : (3, 3) float
          Moment of inertia of the current mesh at the center of
          mass and aligned with the cartesian axis.
        """
        inertia = self.mass_properties['inertia']
        return inertia

    def moment_inertia_frame(self, transform):
        """
        Get the moment of inertia of this mesh with respect to
        an arbitrary frame, versus with respect to the center
        of mass as returned by `mesh.moment_inertia`.

        For example if `transform` is an identity matrix `np.eye(4)`
        this will give the moment at the origin.

        Uses the parallel axis theorum to move the center mass
        tensor to this arbitrary frame.

        Parameters
        ------------
        transform : (4, 4) float
          Homogeneous transformation matrix.

        Returns
        -------------
        inertia : (3, 3)
          Moment of inertia in the requested frame.
        """
        # we'll need the inertia tensor and the center of mass
        props = self.mass_properties
        # calculated moment of inertia is at the center of mass
        # so we want to offset our requested translation by that
        # center of mass
        offset = np.eye(4)
        offset[:3, 3] = -props['center_mass']

        # apply the parallel axis theorum to get the new inertia
        return inertia.transform_inertia(
            inertia_tensor=props['inertia'],
            transform=np.dot(offset, transform),
            mass=props['mass'],
            parallel_axis=True)

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def principal_inertia_components(self):
        """
        Return the principal components of inertia

        Ordering corresponds to mesh.principal_inertia_vectors

        Returns
        ----------
        components : (3, ) float
          Principal components of inertia
        """
        # both components and vectors from inertia matrix
        components, vectors = inertia.principal_axis(self.moment_inertia)
        # store vectors in cache for later
        self._cache['principal_inertia_vectors'] = vectors

        return components

    @property
    def principal_inertia_vectors(self):
        """
        Return the principal axis of inertia as unit vectors.
        The order corresponds to `mesh.principal_inertia_components`.

        Returns
        ----------
        vectors : (3, 3) float
          Three vectors pointing along the
          principal axis of inertia directions
        """
        _ = self.principal_inertia_components
        return self._cache['principal_inertia_vectors']

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def principal_inertia_transform(self):
        """
        A transform which moves the current mesh so the principal
        inertia vectors are on the X,Y, and Z axis, and the centroid is
        at the origin.

        Returns
        ----------
        transform : (4, 4) float
          Homogeneous transformation matrix
        """
        order = np.argsort(self.principal_inertia_components)[1:][::-1]
        vectors = self.principal_inertia_vectors[order]
        vectors = np.vstack((vectors, np.cross(*vectors)))

        transform = np.eye(4)
        transform[:3, :3] = vectors
        transform = transformations.transform_around(
            matrix=transform,
            point=self.centroid)
        transform[:3, 3] -= self.centroid

        return transform

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def symmetry(self):
        """
        Check whether a mesh has rotational symmetry around
        an axis (radial) or point (spherical).

        Returns
        -----------
        symmetry : None, 'radial', 'spherical'
          What kind of symmetry does the mesh have.
        """
        symmetry, axis, section = inertia.radial_symmetry(self)
        self._cache['symmetry_axis'] = axis
        self._cache['symmetry_section'] = section
        return symmetry

    @property
    def symmetry_axis(self):
        """
        If a mesh has rotational symmetry, return the axis.

        Returns
        ------------
        axis : (3, ) float
          Axis around which a 2D profile was revolved to create this mesh.
        """
        if self.symmetry is not None:
            return self._cache['symmetry_axis']

    @property
    def symmetry_section(self):
        """
        If a mesh has rotational symmetry return the two
        vectors which make up a section coordinate frame.

        Returns
        ----------
        section : (2, 3) float
          Vectors to take a section along
        """
        if self.symmetry is not None:
            return self._cache['symmetry_section']

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def triangles(self):
        """
        Actual triangles of the mesh (points, not indexes)

        Returns
        ---------
        triangles : (n, 3, 3) float
          Points of triangle vertices
        """
        # use of advanced indexing on our tracked arrays will
        # trigger a change flag which means the hash will have to be
        # recomputed. We can escape this check by viewing the array.
        triangles = self.vertices.view(np.ndarray)[self.faces]

        return triangles

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def triangles_tree(self):
        """
        An R-tree containing each face of the mesh.

        Returns
        ----------
        tree : rtree.index
          Each triangle in self.faces has a rectangular cell
        """
        tree = triangles.bounds_tree(self.triangles)
        return tree

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def triangles_center(self):
        """
        The center of each triangle (barycentric [1/3, 1/3, 1/3])

        Returns
        ---------
        triangles_center : (len(self.faces), 3) float
          Center of each triangular face
        """
        triangles_center = self.triangles.mean(axis=1)
        return triangles_center

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def triangles_cross(self):
        """
        The cross product of two edges of each triangle.

        Returns
        ---------
        crosses : (n, 3) float
          Cross product of each triangle
        """
        crosses = triangles.cross(self.triangles)
        return crosses

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def edges(self):
        """
        Edges of the mesh (derived from faces).

        Returns
        ---------
        edges : (n, 2) int
          List of vertex indices making up edges
        """
        edges, index = geometry.faces_to_edges(self.faces.view(np.ndarray),
                                               return_index=True)
        self._cache['edges_face'] = index
        return edges

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def edges_face(self):
        """
        Which face does each edge belong to.

        Returns
        ---------
        edges_face : (n, ) int
          Index of self.faces
        """
        _ = self.edges
        return self._cache['edges_face']

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def edges_unique(self):
        """
        The unique edges of the mesh.

        Returns
        ----------
        edges_unique : (n, 2) int
          Vertex indices for unique edges
        """
        unique, inverse = grouping.unique_rows(self.edges_sorted)
        edges_unique = self.edges_sorted[unique]
        # edges_unique will be added automatically by the decorator
        # additional terms generated need to be added to the cache manually
        self._cache['edges_unique_idx'] = unique
        self._cache['edges_unique_inverse'] = inverse
        return edges_unique

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def edges_unique_length(self):
        """
        How long is each unique edge.

        Returns
        ----------
        length : (len(self.edges_unique), ) float
          Length of each unique edge
        """
        vector = np.subtract(*self.vertices[self.edges_unique.T])
        length = util.row_norm(vector)
        return length

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def edges_unique_inverse(self):
        """
        Return the inverse required to reproduce
        self.edges_sorted from self.edges_unique.

        Useful for referencing edge properties:
        mesh.edges_unique[mesh.edges_unique_inverse] == m.edges_sorted

        Returns
        ----------
        inverse : (len(self.edges), ) int
          Indexes of self.edges_unique
        """
        _ = self.edges_unique
        return self._cache['edges_unique_inverse']

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def edges_sorted(self):
        """
        Edges sorted along axis 1

        Returns
        ----------
        edges_sorted : (n, 2)
          Same as self.edges but sorted along axis 1
        """
        edges_sorted = np.sort(self.edges, axis=1)
        return edges_sorted

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def edges_sorted_tree(self):
        """
        A KDTree for mapping edges back to edge index.

        Returns
        ------------
        tree : scipy.spatial.cKDTree
          Tree when queried with edges will return
          their index in mesh.edges_sorted
        """
        from scipy.spatial import cKDTree
        return cKDTree(self.edges_sorted)

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def edges_sparse(self):
        """
        Edges in sparse bool COO graph format where connected
        vertices are True.

        Returns
        ----------
        sparse: (len(self.vertices), len(self.vertices)) bool
          Sparse graph in COO format
        """
        sparse = graph.edges_to_coo(self.edges,
                                    count=len(self.vertices))
        return sparse

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def body_count(self):
        """
        How many connected groups of vertices exist in this mesh.
        Note that this number may differ from result in mesh.split,
        which is calculated from FACE rather than vertex adjacency.

        Returns
        -----------
        count : int
          Number of connected vertex groups
        """
        # labels are (len(vertices), int) OB
        count, labels = graph.csgraph.connected_components(
            self.edges_sparse,
            directed=False,
            return_labels=True)
        self._cache['vertices_component_label'] = labels
        return count

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def faces_unique_edges(self):
        """
        For each face return which indexes in mesh.unique_edges constructs
        that face.

        Returns
        ---------
        faces_unique_edges : (len(self.faces), 3) int
          Indexes of self.edges_unique that
          construct self.faces

        Examples
        ---------
        In [0]: mesh.faces[:2]
        Out[0]:
        TrackedArray([[    1,  6946, 24224],
                      [ 6946,  1727, 24225]])

        In [1]: mesh.edges_unique[mesh.faces_unique_edges[:2]]
        Out[1]:
        array([[[    1,  6946],
                [ 6946, 24224],
                [    1, 24224]],
               [[ 1727,  6946],
                [ 1727, 24225],
                [ 6946, 24225]]])
        """
        # make sure we have populated unique edges
        _ = self.edges_unique
        # we are relying on the fact that edges are stacked in triplets
        result = self._cache['edges_unique_inverse'].reshape((-1, 3))
        return result

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def euler_number(self):
        """
        Return the Euler characteristic (a topological invariant) for the mesh
        In order to guarantee correctness, this should be called after
        remove_unreferenced_vertices

        Returns
        ----------
        euler_number : int
          Topological invariant
        """
        euler = int(self.referenced_vertices.sum() -
                    len(self.edges_unique) +
                    len(self.faces))
        return euler

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def referenced_vertices(self):
        """
        Which vertices in the current mesh are referenced by a face.

        Returns
        -------------
        referenced : (len(self.vertices), ) bool
          Which vertices are referenced by a face
        """
        referenced = np.zeros(len(self.vertices), dtype=bool)
        referenced[self.faces] = True
        return referenced

    @property
    def units(self):
        """
        Definition of units for the mesh.

        Returns
        ----------
        units : str
          Unit system mesh is in, or None if not defined
        """
        if 'units' in self.metadata:
            return self.metadata['units']
        else:
            return None

    @units.setter
    def units(self, value):
        value = str(value).lower()
        self.metadata['units'] = value

    def convert_units(self, desired, guess=False):
        """
        Convert the units of the mesh into a specified unit.

        Parameters
        ------------
        desired : string
          Units to convert to (eg 'inches')
        guess : boolean
          If self.units are not defined should we
          guess the current units of the document and then convert?
        """
        units._convert_units(self, desired, guess)
        return self

    def merge_vertices(
            self,
            merge_tex=None,
            merge_norm=None,
            digits_vertex=None,
            digits_norm=None,
            digits_uv=None):
        """
        Removes duplicate vertices grouped by position and
        optionally texture coordinate and normal.

        Parameters
        -------------
        mesh : Trimesh object
          Mesh to merge vertices on
        merge_tex : bool
          If True textured meshes with UV coordinates will
          have vertices merged regardless of UV coordinates
        merge_norm : bool
          If True, meshes with vertex normals will have
          vertices merged ignoring different normals
        digits_vertex : None or int
          Number of digits to consider for vertex position
        digits_norm : int
          Number of digits to consider for unit normals
        digits_uv : int
          Number of digits to consider for UV coordinates
        """
        grouping.merge_vertices(
            mesh=self,
            merge_tex=merge_tex,
            merge_norm=merge_norm,
            digits_vertex=digits_vertex,
            digits_norm=digits_norm,
            digits_uv=digits_uv)

    def update_vertices(self, mask, inverse=None):
        """
        Update vertices with a mask.

        Parameters
        ------------
        vertex_mask : (len(self.vertices)) bool
          Array of which vertices to keep
        inverse : (len(self.vertices)) int
          Array to reconstruct vertex references
          such as output by np.unique
        """
        # if the mesh is already empty we can't remove anything
        if self.is_empty:
            return

        # make sure mask is a numpy array
        mask = np.asanyarray(mask)

        if ((mask.dtype.name == 'bool' and mask.all()) or
                len(mask) == 0 or self.is_empty):
            # mask doesn't remove any vertices so exit early
            return

        # create the inverse mask if not passed
        if inverse is None:
            inverse = np.zeros(len(self.vertices), dtype=np.int64)
            if mask.dtype.kind == 'b':
                inverse[mask] = np.arange(mask.sum())
            elif mask.dtype.kind == 'i':
                inverse[mask] = np.arange(len(mask))
            else:
                inverse = None

        # re-index faces from inverse
        if inverse is not None and util.is_shape(self.faces, (-1, 3)):
            self.faces = inverse[self.faces.reshape(-1)].reshape((-1, 3))

        # update the visual object with our mask
        self.visual.update_vertices(mask)
        # get the normals from cache before dumping
        cached_normals = self._cache['vertex_normals']

        # apply to face_attributes
        count = len(self.vertices)
        for key, value in self.vertex_attributes.items():
            try:
                # covers un-len'd objects as well
                if len(value) != count:
                    raise TypeError()
            except TypeError:
                continue
            # apply the mask to the attribute
            self.vertex_attributes[key] = value[mask]

        # actually apply the mask
        self.vertices = self.vertices[mask]

        # if we had passed vertex normals try to save them
        if util.is_shape(cached_normals, (-1, 3)):
            try:
                self.vertex_normals = cached_normals[mask]
            except BaseException:
                pass

    def update_faces(self, mask):
        """
        In many cases, we will want to remove specific faces.
        However, there is additional bookkeeping to do this cleanly.
        This function updates the set of faces with a validity mask,
        as well as keeping track of normals and colors.

        Parameters
        ------------
        valid : (m) int or (len(self.faces)) bool
          Mask to remove faces
        """
        # if the mesh is already empty we can't remove anything
        if self.is_empty:
            return

        mask = np.asanyarray(mask)
        if mask.dtype.name == 'bool' and mask.all():
            # mask removes no faces so exit early
            return

        # try to save face normals before dumping cache
        cached_normals = self._cache['face_normals']

        faces = self._data['faces']
        # if Trimesh has been subclassed and faces have been moved
        # from data to cache, get faces from cache.
        if not util.is_shape(faces, (-1, 3)):
            faces = self._cache['faces']

        # apply to face_attributes
        count = len(self.faces)
        for key, value in self.face_attributes.items():
            try:
                # covers un-len'd objects as well
                if len(value) != count:
                    raise TypeError()
            except TypeError:

                continue
            # apply the mask to the attribute
            self.face_attributes[key] = value[mask]

        # actually apply the mask
        self.faces = faces[mask]

        # apply to face colors
        self.visual.update_faces(mask)

        # if our normals were the correct shape apply them
        if util.is_shape(cached_normals, (-1, 3)):
            self.face_normals = cached_normals[mask]

    def remove_infinite_values(self):
        """
        Ensure that every vertex and face consists of finite numbers.
        This will remove vertices or faces containing np.nan and np.inf

        Alters `self.faces` and `self.vertices`
        """
        if util.is_shape(self.faces, (-1, 3)):
            # (len(self.faces), ) bool, mask for faces
            face_mask = np.isfinite(self.faces).all(axis=1)
            self.update_faces(face_mask)

        if util.is_shape(self.vertices, (-1, 3)):
            # (len(self.vertices), ) bool, mask for vertices
            vertex_mask = np.isfinite(self.vertices).all(axis=1)
            self.update_vertices(vertex_mask)

    def remove_duplicate_faces(self):
        """
        On the current mesh remove any faces which are duplicates.

        Alters `self.faces` to remove duplicate faces
        """
        unique, inverse = grouping.unique_rows(np.sort(self.faces, axis=1))
        self.update_faces(unique)

    def rezero(self):
        """
        Translate the mesh so that all vertex vertices are positive.

        Alters `self.vertices`.
        """
        self.apply_translation(self.bounds[0] * -1.0)

    @log_time
    def split(self, **kwargs):
        """
        Returns a list of Trimesh objects, based on face connectivity.
        Splits into individual components, sometimes referred to as 'bodies'

        Parameters
        ------------
        only_watertight : bool
          Only return watertight meshes and discard remainder
        adjacency : None or (n, 2) int
          Override face adjacency with custom values

        Returns
        ---------
        meshes : (n, ) trimesh.Trimesh
          Separate bodies from original mesh
        """
        return graph.split(self, **kwargs)

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def face_adjacency(self):
        """
        Find faces that share an edge i.e. 'adjacent' faces.

        Returns
        ----------
        adjacency : (n, 2) int
          Pairs of faces which share an edge

        Examples
        ---------

        In [1]: mesh = trimesh.load('models/featuretype.STL')

        In [2]: mesh.face_adjacency
        Out[2]:
        array([[   0,    1],
               [   2,    3],
               [   0,    3],
               ...,
               [1112,  949],
               [3467, 3475],
               [1113, 3475]])

        In [3]: mesh.faces[mesh.face_adjacency[0]]
        Out[3]:
        TrackedArray([[   1,    0,  408],
                      [1239,    0,    1]], dtype=int64)

        In [4]: import networkx as nx

        In [5]: graph = nx.from_edgelist(mesh.face_adjacency)

        In [6]: groups = nx.connected_components(graph)
        """
        adjacency, edges = graph.face_adjacency(
            mesh=self, return_edges=True)
        self._cache['face_adjacency_edges'] = edges
        return adjacency

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def face_neighborhood(self):
        """
        Find faces that share a vertex i.e. 'neighbors' faces.

        Returns
        ----------
        neighborhood : (n, 2) int
          Pairs of faces which share a vertex
        """
        return graph.face_neighborhood(self)

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def face_adjacency_edges(self):
        """
        Returns the edges that are shared by the adjacent faces.

        Returns
        --------
        edges : (n, 2) int
           Vertex indices which correspond to face_adjacency
        """
        # this value is calculated as a byproduct of the face adjacency
        _ = self.face_adjacency
        return self._cache['face_adjacency_edges']

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def face_adjacency_edges_tree(self):
        """
        A KDTree for mapping edges back face adjacency index.

        Returns
        ------------
        tree : scipy.spatial.cKDTree
          Tree when queried with SORTED edges will return
          their index in mesh.face_adjacency
        """
        from scipy.spatial import cKDTree
        return cKDTree(self.face_adjacency_edges)

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def face_adjacency_angles(self):
        """
        Return the angle between adjacent faces

        Returns
        --------
        adjacency_angle : (n, ) float
          Angle between adjacent faces
          Each value corresponds with self.face_adjacency
        """
        # get pairs of unit vectors for adjacent faces
        pairs = self.face_normals[self.face_adjacency]
        # find the angle between the pairs of vectors
        angles = geometry.vector_angle(pairs)
        return angles

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def face_adjacency_projections(self):
        """
        The projection of the non-shared vertex of a triangle onto
        its adjacent face

        Returns
        ----------
        projections : (len(self.face_adjacency), ) float
          Dot product of vertex
          onto plane of adjacent triangle.
        """
        projections = convex.adjacency_projections(self)
        return projections

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def face_adjacency_convex(self):
        """
        Return faces which are adjacent and locally convex.

        What this means is that given faces A and B, the one vertex
        in B that is not shared with A, projected onto the plane of A
        has a projection that is zero or negative.

        Returns
        ----------
        are_convex : (len(self.face_adjacency), ) bool
          Face pairs that are locally convex
        """
        are_convex = self.face_adjacency_projections < tol.merge
        return are_convex

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def face_adjacency_unshared(self):
        """
        Return the vertex index of the two vertices not in the shared
        edge between two adjacent faces

        Returns
        -----------
        vid_unshared : (len(mesh.face_adjacency), 2) int
          Indexes of mesh.vertices
        """
        vid_unshared = graph.face_adjacency_unshared(self)
        return vid_unshared

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def face_adjacency_radius(self):
        """
        The approximate radius of a cylinder that fits inside adjacent faces.

        Returns
        ------------
        radii : (len(self.face_adjacency), ) float
          Approximate radius formed by triangle pair
        """
        radii, span = graph.face_adjacency_radius(mesh=self)
        self._cache['face_adjacency_span'] = span
        return radii

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def face_adjacency_span(self):
        """
        The approximate perpendicular projection of the non-shared
        vertices in a pair of adjacent faces onto the shared edge of
        the two faces.

        Returns
        ------------
        span : (len(self.face_adjacency), ) float
          Approximate span between the non-shared vertices
        """
        _ = self.face_adjacency_radius
        return self._cache['face_adjacency_span']

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def integral_mean_curvature(self):
        """
        The integral mean curvature, or the surface integral of the mean curvature.

        Returns
        ---------
        area : float
          Integral mean curvature of mesh
        """
        edges_length = np.linalg.norm(np.subtract(
            *self.vertices[self.face_adjacency_edges.T]), axis=1)
        imc = (self.face_adjacency_angles * edges_length).sum() * 0.5
        return imc

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def vertex_adjacency_graph(self):
        """
        Returns a networkx graph representing the vertices and their connections
        in the mesh.

        Returns
        ---------
        graph: networkx.Graph
          Graph representing vertices and edges between
          them where vertices are nodes and edges are edges

        Examples
        ----------
        This is useful for getting nearby vertices for a given vertex,
        potentially for some simple smoothing techniques.

        mesh = trimesh.primitives.Box()
        graph = mesh.vertex_adjacency_graph
        graph.neighbors(0)
        > [1, 2, 3, 4]
        """

        adjacency_g = graph.vertex_adjacency_graph(mesh=self)
        return adjacency_g

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def vertex_neighbors(self):
        """
        The vertex neighbors of each vertex of the mesh, determined from
        the cached vertex_adjacency_graph, if already existent.

        Returns
        ----------
        vertex_neighbors : (len(self.vertices), ) int
          Represents immediate neighbors of each vertex along
          the edge of a triangle

        Examples
        ----------
        This is useful for getting nearby vertices for a given vertex,
        potentially for some simple smoothing techniques.

        >>> mesh = trimesh.primitives.Box()
        >>> mesh.vertex_neighbors[0]
        [1, 2, 3, 4]
        """
        return graph.neighbors(
            edges=self.edges_unique,
            max_index=len(self.vertices))

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def is_winding_consistent(self):
        """
        Does the mesh have consistent winding or not.
        A mesh with consistent winding has each shared edge
        going in an opposite direction from the other in the pair.

        Returns
        --------
        consistent : bool
          Is winding is consistent or not
        """
        if self.is_empty:
            return False
        # consistent winding check is populated into the cache by is_watertight
        _ = self.is_watertight
        return self._cache['is_winding_consistent']

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def is_watertight(self):
        """
        Check if a mesh is watertight by making sure every edge is
        included in two faces.

        Returns
        ----------
        is_watertight : bool
          Is mesh watertight or not
        """
        if self.is_empty:
            return False
        watertight, winding = graph.is_watertight(
            edges=self.edges, edges_sorted=self.edges_sorted)
        self._cache['is_winding_consistent'] = winding
        return watertight

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def is_volume(self):
        """
        Check if a mesh has all the properties required to represent
        a valid volume, rather than just a surface.

        These properties include being watertight, having consistent
        winding and outward facing normals.

        Returns
        ---------
        valid : bool
          Does the mesh represent a volume
        """
        valid = bool(self.is_watertight and
                     self.is_winding_consistent and
                     np.isfinite(self.center_mass).all() and
                     self.volume > 0.0)
        return valid

    @property
    def is_empty(self):
        """
        Does the current mesh have data defined.

        Returns
        --------
        empty : bool
          If True, no data is set on the current mesh
        """
        return self._data.is_empty()

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def is_convex(self):
        """
        Check if a mesh is convex or not.

        Returns
        ----------
        is_convex: bool
          Is mesh convex or not
        """
        if self.is_empty:
            return False

        is_convex = bool(convex.is_convex(self))
        return is_convex

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def kdtree(self):
        """
        Return a scipy.spatial.cKDTree of the vertices of the mesh.
        Not cached as this lead to observed memory issues and segfaults.

        Returns
        ---------
        tree : scipy.spatial.cKDTree
          Contains mesh.vertices
        """

        from scipy.spatial import cKDTree
        tree = cKDTree(self.vertices.view(np.ndarray))
        return tree

    def remove_degenerate_faces(self, height=tol.merge):
        """
        Remove degenerate faces (faces without 3 unique vertex indices)
        from the current mesh.

        If a height is specified, it will remove any face with a 2D oriented
        bounding box with one edge shorter than that height.

        If not specified, it will remove any face with a zero normal.

        Parameters
        ------------
        height : float
          If specified removes faces with an oriented bounding
          box shorter than this on one side.

        Returns
        -------------
        nondegenerate : (len(self.faces), ) bool
          Mask used to remove faces
        """
        nondegenerate = triangles.nondegenerate(
            self.triangles,
            areas=self.area_faces,

            height=height)
        self.update_faces(nondegenerate)

        return nondegenerate

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def facets(self):
        """
        Return a list of face indices for coplanar adjacent faces.

        Returns
        ---------
        facets : (n, ) sequence of (m, ) int
          Groups of indexes of self.faces
        """
        facets = graph.facets(self)
        return facets

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def facets_area(self):
        """
        Return an array containing the area of each facet.

        Returns
        ---------
        area : (len(self.facets), ) float
          Total area of each facet (group of faces)
        """
        # avoid thrashing the cache inside a loop
        area_faces = self.area_faces
        # sum the area of each group of faces represented by facets
        # use native python sum in tight loop as opposed to array.sum()
        # as in this case the lower function call overhead of
        # native sum provides roughly a 50% speedup
        areas = np.array([sum(area_faces[i])
                          for i in self.facets],
                         dtype=np.float64)
        return areas

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def facets_normal(self):
        """
        Return the normal of each facet

        Returns
        ---------
        normals: (len(self.facets), 3) float
          A unit normal vector for each facet
        """
        if len(self.facets) == 0:
            return np.array([])

        area_faces = self.area_faces

        # the face index of the largest face in each facet
        index = np.array([i[area_faces[i].argmax()]
                          for i in self.facets])
        # (n, 3) float, unit normal vectors of facet plane
        normals = self.face_normals[index]
        # (n, 3) float, points on facet plane
        origins = self.vertices[self.faces[:, 0][index]]
        # save origins in cache
        self._cache['facets_origin'] = origins

        return normals

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def facets_origin(self):
        """
        Return a point on the facet plane.

        Returns
        ------------
        origins : (len(self.facets), 3) float
          A point on each facet plane
        """
        _ = self.facets_normal
        return self._cache['facets_origin']

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def facets_boundary(self):
        """
        Return the edges which represent the boundary of each facet

        Returns
        ---------
        edges_boundary : sequence of (n, 2) int
          Indices of self.vertices
        """
        # make each row correspond to a single face
        edges = self.edges_sorted.reshape((-1, 6))
        # get the edges for each facet
        edges_facet = [edges[i].reshape((-1, 2)) for i in self.facets]
        edges_boundary = [i[grouping.group_rows(i, require_count=1)]
                          for i in edges_facet]
        return edges_boundary

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def facets_on_hull(self):
        """
        Find which facets of the mesh are on the convex hull.

        Returns
        ---------
        on_hull : (len(mesh.facets), ) bool
          is A facet on the meshes convex hull or not
        """
        # if no facets exit early
        if len(self.facets) == 0:
            return np.array([], dtype=bool)

        # facets plane, origin and normal
        normals = self.facets_normal
        origins = self.facets_origin

        # (n, 3) convex hull vertices
        convex = self.convex_hull.vertices.view(np.ndarray).copy()

        # boolean mask for which facets are on convex hull
        on_hull = np.zeros(len(self.facets), dtype=bool)

        for i, normal, origin in zip(range(len(normals)), normals, origins):
            # a facet plane is on the convex hull if every vertex
            # of the convex hull is behind that plane
            # which we are checking with dot products
            dot = np.dot(normal, (convex - origin).T)
            on_hull[i] = (dot < tol.merge).all()

        return on_hull

    @log_time
    def fix_normals(self, multibody=None):
        """
        Find and fix problems with self.face_normals and self.faces
        winding direction.

        For face normals ensure that vectors are consistently pointed
        outwards, and that self.faces is wound in the correct direction
        for all connected components.

        Parameters
        -------------
        multibody : None or bool
          Fix normals across multiple bodies
          if None automatically pick from body_count
        """
        if multibody is None:
            multibody = self.body_count > 1
        repair.fix_normals(self, multibody=multibody)

    def fill_holes(self):
        """
        Fill single triangle and single quad holes in the current mesh.

        Returns
        ----------
        watertight : bool
          Is the mesh watertight after the function completes
        """
        return repair.fill_holes(self)

    def register(self, other, **kwargs):
        """
        Align a mesh with another mesh or a PointCloud using
        the principal axes of inertia as a starting point which
        is refined by iterative closest point.

        Parameters
        ------------
        mesh : trimesh.Trimesh object
          Mesh to align with other
        other : trimesh.Trimesh or (n, 3) float
          Mesh or points in space
        samples : int
          Number of samples from mesh surface to align
        icp_first : int
          How many ICP iterations for the 9 possible
          combinations of
        icp_final : int
          How many ICP itertations for the closest
          candidate from the wider search

        Returns
        -----------
        mesh_to_other : (4, 4) float
          Transform to align mesh to the other object
        cost : float
          Average square distance per point
        """
        mesh_to_other, cost = registration.mesh_other(
            mesh=self,
            other=other,
            **kwargs)
        return mesh_to_other, cost

    def compute_stable_poses(self,
                             center_mass=None,
                             sigma=0.0,
                             n_samples=1,
                             threshold=0.0):
        """
        Computes stable orientations of a mesh and their quasi-static probabilities.

        This method samples the location of the center of mass from a multivariate
        gaussian (mean at com, cov equal to identity times sigma) over n_samples.
        For each sample, it computes the stable resting poses of the mesh on a
        a planar workspace and evaluates the probabilities of landing in
        each pose if the object is dropped onto the table randomly.

        This method returns the 4x4 homogeneous transform matrices that place
        the shape against the planar surface with the z-axis pointing upwards
        and a list of the probabilities for each pose.
        The transforms and probabilties that are returned are sorted, with the
        most probable pose first.

        Parameters
        ------------
        center_mass : (3, ) float
          The object center of mass (if None, this method
          assumes uniform density and watertightness and
          computes a center of mass explicitly)
        sigma : float
          The covariance for the multivariate gaussian used
          to sample center of mass locations
        n_samples : int
          The number of samples of the center of mass location
        threshold : float
          The probability value at which to threshold
          returned stable poses

        Returns
        -------
        transforms : (n, 4, 4) float
          The homogeneous matrices that transform the
          object to rest in a stable pose, with the
          new z-axis pointing upwards from the table
          and the object just touching the table.

        probs : (n, ) float
          A probability ranging from 0.0 to 1.0 for each pose
        """
        return poses.compute_stable_poses(mesh=self,
                                          center_mass=center_mass,
                                          sigma=sigma,
                                          n_samples=n_samples,
                                          threshold=threshold)

    def subdivide(self, face_index=None):
        """
        Subdivide a mesh, with each subdivided face replaced with four
        smaller faces.

        Parameters
        ------------
        face_index: (m, ) int or None
          If None all faces of mesh will be subdivided
          If (m, ) int array of indices: only specified faces will be
          subdivided. Note that in this case the mesh will generally
          no longer be manifold, as the additional vertex on the midpoint
          will not be used by the adjacent faces to the faces specified,
          and an additional postprocessing step will be required to
          make resulting mesh watertight
        """
        # subdivide vertex attributes
        vertex_attributes = {}
        visual = None
        if (hasattr(self.visual, 'uv') and
                np.shape(self.visual.uv) == (len(self.vertices), 2)):

            # uv coords divided along with vertices
            vertices, faces, attr = remesh.subdivide(
                vertices=np.hstack((self.vertices, self.visual.uv)),
                faces=self.faces,
                face_index=face_index,
                vertex_attributes=vertex_attributes)

            # get a copy of the current visuals
            visual = self.visual.copy()

            # separate uv coords and vertices
            vertices, visual.uv = vertices[:, :3], vertices[:, 3:]

        else:
            # perform the subdivision with vertex attributes
            vertices, faces, attr = remesh.subdivide(
                vertices=self.vertices,
                faces=self.faces,
                face_index=face_index,
                vertex_attributes=vertex_attributes)

        # create a new mesh
        result = Trimesh(
            vertices=vertices,
            faces=faces,
            visual=visual,
            vertex_attributes=attr,
            process=False)
        return result

    def subdivide_to_size(self, max_edge, max_iter=10, return_index=False):
        """
        Subdivide a mesh until every edge is shorter than a
        specified length.

        Will return a triangle soup, not a nicely structured mesh.

        Parameters
        ------------
        max_edge : float
            Maximum length of any edge in the result
        max_iter : int
            The maximum number of times to run subdivision
        return_index : bool
            If True, return index of original face for new faces
        """
        # subdivide vertex attributes
        visual = None
        if (hasattr(self.visual, 'uv') and
                np.shape(self.visual.uv) == (len(self.vertices), 2)):

            # uv coords divided along with vertices
            vertices_faces = remesh.subdivide_to_size(
                vertices=np.hstack((self.vertices, self.visual.uv)),
                faces=self.faces,
                max_edge=max_edge,
                max_iter=max_iter,
                return_index=return_index)
            # unpack result
            if return_index:
                vertices, faces, final_index = vertices_faces
            else:
                vertices, faces = vertices_faces

            # get a copy of the current visuals
            visual = self.visual.copy()

            # separate uv coords and vertices
            vertices, visual.uv = vertices[:, :3], vertices[:, 3:]

        else:
            # uv coords divided along with vertices
            vertices_faces = remesh.subdivide_to_size(
                vertices=self.vertices,
                faces=self.faces,
                max_edge=max_edge,
                max_iter=max_iter,
                return_index=return_index)
            # unpack result
            if return_index:
                vertices, faces, final_index = vertices_faces
            else:
                vertices, faces = vertices_faces

        # create a new mesh
        result = Trimesh(
            vertices=vertices,
            faces=faces,
            visual=visual,
            process=False)

        if return_index:
            return result, final_index

        return result

    def subdivide_loop(self, iterations=None):
        """
        Subdivide a mesh by dividing each triangle into four
        triangles and approximating their smoothed surface
        using loop subdivision. Loop subdivision often looks
        better on triangular meshes than catmul-clark, which
        operates primarily on quads.

        Parameters
        ------------
        iterations : int
          Number of iterations to run subdivision.
        multibody : bool
          If True will try to subdivide for each submesh
        """
        # perform subdivision for one mesh
        new_vertices, new_faces = remesh.subdivide_loop(
            vertices=self.vertices,
            faces=self.faces,
            iterations=iterations)
        # create new mesh
        result = Trimesh(
            vertices=new_vertices,
            faces=new_faces,
            process=False)
        return result

    @log_time
    def smoothed(self, **kwargs):
        """
        Return a version of the current mesh which will render
        nicely, without changing source mesh.

        Parameters
        -------------
        angle : float or None
          Angle in radians face pairs with angles
          smaller than this will appear smoothed
        facet_minarea : float or None
          Minimum area fraction to consider
          IE for `facets_minarea=25` only facets larger
          than `mesh.area / 25` will be considered.

        Returns
        ---------
        smoothed : trimesh.Trimesh
          Non watertight version of current mesh
          which will render nicely with smooth shading
        """

        # smooth should be recomputed if visuals change
        self.visual._verify_hash()
        cached = self.visual._cache['smoothed']
        if cached is not None:
            return cached
        # run smoothing
        smoothed = graph.smoothed(
            self, **kwargs)
        self.visual._cache['smoothed'] = smoothed
        return smoothed

    @property
    def visual(self):
        """
        Get the stored visuals for the current mesh.

        Returns
        -------------
        visual : ColorVisuals or TextureVisuals
          Contains visual information about the mesh
        """
        if hasattr(self, '_visual'):
            return self._visual
        return None

    @visual.setter
    def visual(self, value):
        """
        When setting a visual object, always make sure
        that `visual.mesh` points back to the source mesh.

        Parameters
        --------------
        visual : ColorVisuals or TextureVisuals
          Contains visual information about the mesh
        """
        value.mesh = self
        self._visual = value

    def section(self,
                plane_normal,
                plane_origin,
                **kwargs):
        """
        Returns a 3D cross section of the current mesh and a plane
        defined by origin and normal.

        Parameters
        ------------
        plane_normal: (3) vector for plane normal
          Normal vector of section plane
        plane_origin : (3, ) float
          Point on the cross section plane

        Returns
        ---------
        intersections: Path3D or None
          Curve of intersection
        """
        # turn line segments into Path2D/Path3D objects
        from .exchange.load import load_path

        # return a single cross section in 3D
        lines, face_index = intersections.mesh_plane(
            mesh=self,
            plane_normal=plane_normal,
            plane_origin=plane_origin,
            return_faces=True,
            **kwargs)

        # if the section didn't hit the mesh return None
        if len(lines) == 0:
            return None

        # otherwise load the line segments into a Path3D object
        path = load_path(lines)

        # add the face index info into metadata
        path.metadata['face_index'] = face_index

        return path

    def section_multiplane(self,
                           plane_origin,
                           plane_normal,
                           heights):
        """
        Return multiple parallel cross sections of the current
        mesh in 2D.

        Parameters
        ------------
        plane_origin : (3, ) float
          Point on the cross section plane
        plane_normal: (3) vector for plane normal
          Normal vector of section plane
        heights : (n, ) float
          Each section is offset by height along
          the plane normal.

        Returns
        ---------
        paths : (n, ) Path2D or None
          2D cross sections at specified heights.
          path.metadata['to_3D'] contains transform
          to return 2D section back into 3D space.
        """
        # turn line segments into Path2D/Path3D objects
        from .exchange.load import load_path
        # do a multiplane intersection
        lines, transforms, faces = intersections.mesh_multiplane(
            mesh=self,
            plane_normal=plane_normal,
            plane_origin=plane_origin,
            heights=heights)

        # turn the line segments into Path2D objects
        paths = [None] * len(lines)
        for i, f, segments, T in zip(range(len(lines)),
                                     faces,
                                     lines,
                                     transforms):
            if len(segments) > 0:
                paths[i] = load_path(
                    segments,
                    metadata={'to_3D': T, 'face_index': f})
        return paths

    def slice_plane(self,
                    plane_origin,
                    plane_normal,
                    cap=False,
                    face_index=None,
                    cached_dots=None,
                    **kwargs):
        """
        Slice the mesh with a plane, returning a new mesh that is the
        portion of the original mesh to the positive normal side of the plane

        plane_origin :  (3,) float
          Point on plane to intersect with mesh
        plane_normal : (3,) float
          Normal vector of plane to intersect with mesh
        cap : bool
          If True, cap the result with a triangulated polygon
        face_index : ((m,) int)
            Indexes of mesh.faces to slice. When no mask is
            provided, the default is to slice all faces.
        cached_dots : (n, 3) float
            If an external function has stored dot
            products pass them here to avoid recomputing

        Returns
        ---------
        new_mesh: trimesh.Trimesh or None
          Subset of current mesh that intersects the half plane
          to the positive normal side of the plane
        """

        # return a new mesh
        new_mesh = intersections.slice_mesh_plane(
            mesh=self,
            plane_normal=plane_normal,
            plane_origin=plane_origin,
            cap=cap,
            face_index=face_index,
            cached_dots=cached_dots,
            **kwargs)

        return new_mesh

    def unwrap(self, image=None):
        """
        Returns a Trimesh object equivalent to the current mesh where
        the vertices have been assigned uv texture coordinates. Vertices
        may be split into as many as necessary by the unwrapping
        algorithm, depending on how many uv maps they appear in.

        Requires `pip install xatlas`

        Parameters
        ------------
        image : None or PIL.Image
          Image to assign to the material

        Returns
        --------
        unwrapped : trimesh.Trimesh
          Mesh with unwrapped uv coordinates
        """
        import xatlas

        vmap, faces, uv = xatlas.parametrize(
            self.vertices, self.faces)

        result = Trimesh(vertices=self.vertices[vmap],
                         faces=faces,
                         visual=TextureVisuals(uv=uv, image=image),
                         process=False)

        # run additional checks for unwrapping
        if tol.strict:
            # check the export object to make sure we didn't
            # move the indices around on creation
            assert np.allclose(result.visual.uv, uv)
            assert np.allclose(result.faces, faces)
            assert np.allclose(result.vertices, self.vertices[vmap])
            # check to make sure indices are still the
            # same order after we've exported to OBJ
            export = result.export(file_type='obj')
            uv_recon = np.array([L[3:].split() for L in
                                 str.splitlines(export) if
                                 L.startswith('vt ')],
                                dtype=np.float64)
            assert np.allclose(uv_recon, uv)
            v_recon = np.array([L[2:].split() for L in
                                str.splitlines(export) if
                                L.startswith('v ')],
                               dtype=np.float64)
            assert np.allclose(v_recon, self.vertices[vmap])

        return result

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def convex_hull(self):
        """
        Returns a Trimesh object representing the convex hull of
        the current mesh.

        Returns
        --------
        convex : trimesh.Trimesh
          Mesh of convex hull of current mesh
        """
        hull = convex.convex_hull(self)
        return hull

    def sample(self, count, return_index=False, face_weight=None):
        """
        Return random samples distributed across the
        surface of the mesh

        Parameters
        ------------
        count : int
          Number of points to sample
        return_index : bool
          If True will also return the index of which face each
          sample was taken from.
        face_weight : None or len(mesh.faces) float
          Weight faces by a factor other than face area.
          If None will be the same as face_weight=mesh.area

        Returns
        ---------
        samples : (count, 3) float
          Points on surface of mesh
        face_index : (count, ) int
          Index of self.faces
        """
        samples, index = sample.sample_surface(
            mesh=self, count=count, face_weight=face_weight)
        if return_index:
            return samples, index
        return samples

    def remove_unreferenced_vertices(self):
        """
        Remove all vertices in the current mesh which are not
        referenced by a face.
        """
        referenced = np.zeros(len(self.vertices), dtype=bool)
        referenced[self.faces] = True

        inverse = np.zeros(len(self.vertices), dtype=np.int64)
        inverse[referenced] = np.arange(referenced.sum())

        self.update_vertices(mask=referenced, inverse=inverse)

    def unmerge_vertices(self):
        """
        Removes all face references so that every face contains
        three unique vertex indices and no faces are adjacent.
        """
        # new faces are incrementing so every vertex is unique
        faces = np.arange(len(self.faces) * 3,
                          dtype=np.int64).reshape((-1, 3))

        # use update_vertices to apply mask to
        # all properties that are per-vertex
        self.update_vertices(self.faces.reshape(-1))
        # set faces to incrementing indexes
        self.faces = faces
        # keep face normals as the haven't changed
        self._cache.clear(exclude=['face_normals'])

    def apply_transform(self, matrix):
        """
        Transform mesh by a homogeneous transformation matrix.

        Does the bookkeeping to avoid recomputing things so this function
        should be used rather than directly modifying self.vertices
        if possible.

        Parameters
        ------------
        matrix : (4, 4) float
          Homogeneous transformation matrix
        """
        # get c-order float64 matrix
        matrix = np.asanyarray(
            matrix, order='C', dtype=np.float64)

        # only support homogeneous transformations
        if matrix.shape != (4, 4):
            raise ValueError('Transformation matrix must be (4, 4)!')

        # exit early if we've been passed an identity matrix
        # np.allclose is surprisingly slow so do this test
        elif util.allclose(matrix, np.eye(4), 1e-8):
            return self

        # new vertex positions
        new_vertices = transformations.transform_points(
            self.vertices,
            matrix=matrix)

        # check to see if the matrix has rotation
        # rather than just translation
        has_rotation = not util.allclose(
            matrix[:3, :3], np.eye(3), atol=1e-6)

        # overridden center of mass
        if self._center_mass is not None:
            self._center_mass = transformations.transform_points(
                np.array([self._center_mass, ]),
                matrix)[0]

        # preserve face normals if we have them stored
        if has_rotation and 'face_normals' in self._cache:
            # transform face normals by rotation component
            self._cache.cache['face_normals'] = util.unitize(
                transformations.transform_points(
                    self.face_normals,
                    matrix=matrix,
                    translate=False))

        # preserve vertex normals if we have them stored
        if has_rotation and 'vertex_normals' in self._cache:
            self._cache.cache['vertex_normals'] = util.unitize(
                transformations.transform_points(
                    self.vertex_normals,
                    matrix=matrix,
                    translate=False))

        # if transformation flips winding of triangles
        if has_rotation and transformations.flips_winding(matrix):
            log.debug('transform flips winding')
            # fliplr will make array non C contiguous
            # which will cause hashes to be more
            # expensive than necessary so wrap
            self.faces = np.ascontiguousarray(
                np.fliplr(self.faces))

        # assign the new values
        self.vertices = new_vertices

        # preserve normals and topology in cache
        # while dumping everything else
        self._cache.clear(exclude={
            'face_normals',   # transformed by us
            'vertex_normals',  # also transformed by us
            'face_adjacency',  # topological
            'face_adjacency_edges',
            'face_adjacency_unshared',
            'edges',
            'edges_face',
            'edges_sorted',
            'edges_unique',
            'edges_unique_idx',
            'edges_unique_inverse',
            'edges_sparse',
            'body_count',
            'faces_unique_edges',
            'euler_number'})
        # set the cache ID with the current hash value
        self._cache.id_set()
        return self

    def voxelized(self, pitch, method='subdivide', **kwargs):
        """
        Return a VoxelGrid object representing the current mesh
        discretized into voxels at the specified pitch

        Parameters
        ------------
        pitch : float
          The edge length of a single voxel
        method: implementation key. See `trimesh.voxel.creation.voxelizers`
        **kwargs: additional kwargs passed to the specified implementation.

        Returns
        ----------
        voxelized : VoxelGrid object
          Representing the current mesh
        """
        from .voxel import creation
        return creation.voxelize(
            mesh=self, pitch=pitch, method=method, **kwargs)

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def as_open3d(self):
        """
        Return an `open3d.geometry.TriangleMesh` version of
        the current mesh.

        Returns
        ---------
        open3d : open3d.geometry.TriangleMesh
          Current mesh as an open3d object.
        """
        import open3d
        # create from numpy arrays
        return open3d.geometry.TriangleMesh(
            vertices=open3d.utility.Vector3dVector(
                self.vertices.copy()),
            triangles=open3d.utility.Vector3iVector(
                self.faces.copy()))

    def simplify_quadratic_decimation(self, *args, **kwargs):
        """
        DERECATED MARCH 2024 REPLACE WITH:
        `mesh.simplify_quadric_decimation`
        """
        warnings.warn(
            '`simplify_quadratic_decimation` is deprecated ' +
            'as it was a typo and will be removed in March 2024: ' +
            'replace with `simplify_quadric_decimation`',
            category=DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)
        return self.simplify_quadric_decimation(*args, **kwargs)

    def simplify_quadric_decimation(self, face_count):
        """
        A thin wrapper around the `open3d` implementation of this:
        `open3d.geometry.TriangleMesh.simplify_quadric_decimation`

        Parameters
        -----------
        face_count : int
          Number of faces desired in the resulting mesh.

        Returns
        ---------
        simple : trimesh.Trimesh
          Simplified version of mesh.
        """
        simple = self.as_open3d.simplify_quadric_decimation(
            int(face_count))
        return Trimesh(vertices=simple.vertices, faces=simple.triangles)

    def outline(self, face_ids=None, **kwargs):
        """
        Given a list of face indexes find the outline of those
        faces and return it as a Path3D.

        The outline is defined here as every edge which is only
        included by a single triangle.

        Note that this implies a non-watertight mesh as the
        outline of a watertight mesh is an empty path.

        Parameters
        ------------
        face_ids : (n, ) int
          Indices to compute the outline of.
          If None, outline of full mesh will be computed.
        **kwargs: passed to Path3D constructor

        Returns
        ----------
        path : Path3D
          Curve in 3D of the outline
        """
        from .path import Path3D
        from .path.exchange.misc import faces_to_path
        return Path3D(**faces_to_path(
            self, face_ids, **kwargs))

    def projected(self,
                  normal,
                  **kwargs):
        """
        Project a mesh onto a plane and then extract the
        polygon that outlines the mesh projection on that
        plane.

        Parameters
        ----------
        mesh : trimesh.Trimesh
          Source geometry
        check : bool
          If True make sure is flat
        normal : (3,) float
          Normal to extract flat pattern along
        origin : None or (3,) float
          Origin of plane to project mesh onto
        pad : float
          Proportion to pad polygons by before unioning
          and then de-padding result by to avoid zero-width gaps.
        tol_dot : float
          Tolerance for discarding on-edge triangles.
        max_regions : int
          Raise an exception if the mesh has more than this
          number of disconnected regions to fail quickly before unioning.

        Returns
        ----------
        projected : trimesh.path.Path2D
          Outline of source mesh
        """
        from .path import Path2D
        from .exchange.load import load_path
        from .path.polygons import projected

        projection = projected(
            mesh=self, normal=normal, **kwargs)
        if projection is None:
            return Path2D()
        return load_path(projection)

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def area(self):
        """
        Summed area of all triangles in the current mesh.

        Returns
        ---------
        area : float
          Surface area of mesh
        """
        area = self.area_faces.sum()
        return area

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def area_faces(self):
        """
        The area of each face in the mesh.

        Returns
        ---------
        area_faces : (n, ) float
          Area of each face
        """
        area_faces = triangles.area(
            crosses=self.triangles_cross,
            sum=False)
        return area_faces

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def mass_properties(self):
        """
        Returns the mass properties of the current mesh.

        Assumes uniform density, and result is probably garbage if mesh
        isn't watertight.

        Returns
        ----------
        properties : dict
          With keys:
          'volume'      : in global units^3
          'mass'        : From specified density
          'density'     : Included again for convenience (same as kwarg density)
          'inertia'     : Taken at the center of mass and aligned with global
                         coordinate system
          'center_mass' : Center of mass location, in global coordinate system
        """
        mass = triangles.mass_properties(
            triangles=self.triangles,
            crosses=self.triangles_cross,
            density=self._density,
            center_mass=self._center_mass,
            skip_inertia=False)
        return mass

    def invert(self):
        """
        Invert the mesh in-place by reversing the winding of every
        face and negating normals without dumping the cache.

        Alters `self.faces` by reversing columns, and negating
        `self.face_normals` and `self.vertex_normals`.
        """
        with self._cache:
            if 'face_normals' in self._cache:
                self.face_normals = self._cache['face_normals'] * -1.0
            if 'vertex_normals' in self._cache:
                self.vertex_normals = self._cache['vertex_normals'] * -1.0
            # fliplr makes array non-contiguous so cache checks slow
            self.faces = np.ascontiguousarray(
                np.fliplr(self.faces))
        # save our normals
        self._cache.clear(exclude=['face_normals',
                                   'vertex_normals'])

    def scene(self, **kwargs):
        """
        Returns a Scene object containing the current mesh.

        Returns
        ---------
        scene : trimesh.scene.scene.Scene
          Contains just the current mesh
        """
        return Scene(self, **kwargs)

    def show(self, **kwargs):
        """
        Render the mesh in an opengl window. Requires pyglet.

        Parameters
        ------------
        smooth : bool
          Run smooth shading on mesh or not,
          large meshes will be slow

        Returns
        -----------
        scene : trimesh.scene.Scene
          Scene with current mesh in it
        """
        scene = self.scene()
        return scene.show(**kwargs)

    def submesh(self, faces_sequence, **kwargs):
        """
        Return a subset of the mesh.

        Parameters
        ------------
        faces_sequence : sequence (m, ) int
          Face indices of mesh
        only_watertight : bool
          Only return submeshes which are watertight
        append : bool
          Return a single mesh which has the faces appended.
          if this flag is set, only_watertight is ignored

        Returns
        ---------
        submesh : Trimesh or (n,) Trimesh
          Single mesh if `append` or list of submeshes
        """
        return util.submesh(
            mesh=self,
            faces_sequence=faces_sequence,
            **kwargs)

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def identifier(self):
        """
        Return a float vector which is unique to the mesh
        and is robust to rotation and translation.

        Returns
        -----------
        identifier : (7,) float
          Identifying properties of the current mesh
        """
        return comparison.identifier_simple(self)

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def identifier_hash(self):
        """
        A hash of the rotation invariant identifier vector.

        Returns
        ---------
        hashed : str
          Hex string of the SHA256 hash from
          the identifier vector at hand-tuned sigfigs.
        """
        return comparison.identifier_hash(self.identifier)

    @property
    def identifier_md5(self):
        warnings.warn(
            '`geom.identifier_md5` is deprecated and will ' +
            'be removed in October 2023: replace ' +
            'with `geom.identifier_hash`',
            category=DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2)
        return self.identifier_hash

    def export(self, file_obj=None, file_type=None, **kwargs):
        """
        Export the current mesh to a file object.
        If file_obj is a filename, file will be written there.

        Supported formats are stl, off, ply, collada, json,
        dict, glb, dict64, msgpack.

        Parameters
        ------------
        file_obj : open writeable file object
          str, file name where to save the mesh
          None, return the export blob
        file_type : str
          Which file type to export as, if `file_name`
          is passed this is not required.
        """
        return export_mesh(
            mesh=self,
            file_obj=file_obj,
            file_type=file_type,
            **kwargs)

    def to_dict(self):
        """
        Return a dictionary representation of the current mesh
        with keys that can be used as the kwargs for the
        Trimesh constructor and matches the schema in:
        `trimesh/resources/schema/primitive/trimesh.schema.json`

        Returns
        ----------
        result : dict
          Matches schema and Trimesh constructor.
        """
        return {'kind': 'trimesh',
                'vertices': self.vertices.tolist(),
                'faces': self.faces.tolist()}

    def convex_decomposition(self, maxhulls=20, **kwargs):
        """
        Compute an approximate convex decomposition of a mesh.

        testVHACD Parameters which can be passed as kwargs:

        Name                                        Default
        -----------------------------------------------------
        resolution                                  100000
        max. concavity                              0.001
        plane down-sampling                         4
        convex-hull down-sampling                   4
        alpha                                       0.05
        beta                                        0.05
        maxhulls                                    10
        pca                                         0
        mode                                        0
        max. vertices per convex-hull               64
        min. volume to add vertices to convex-hulls 0.0001
        convex-hull approximation                   1
        OpenCL acceleration                         1
        OpenCL platform ID                          0
        OpenCL device ID                            0
        output                                      output.wrl
        log                                         log.txt


        Parameters
        ------------
        maxhulls :  int
          Maximum number of convex hulls to return
        **kwargs :  testVHACD keyword arguments

        Returns
        -------
        meshes : list of trimesh.Trimesh
          List of convex meshes that approximate the original
        """
        result = decomposition.convex_decomposition(self,
                                                    maxhulls=maxhulls,
                                                    **kwargs)
        return result

    def union(self, other, engine=None, **kwargs):
        """
        Boolean union between this mesh and n other meshes

        Parameters
        ------------
        other : Trimesh or (n, ) Trimesh
          Other meshes to union
        engine : None or str
          Which backend to use

        Returns
        ---------
        union : trimesh.Trimesh
          Union of self and other Trimesh objects
        """
        result = boolean.union(
            meshes=np.append(self, other),
            engine=engine,
            **kwargs)
        return result

    def difference(self, other, engine=None, **kwargs):
        """
        Boolean difference between this mesh and n other meshes

        Parameters
        ------------
        other : trimesh.Trimesh, or list of trimesh.Trimesh objects
         Meshes to difference

        Returns
        ---------
        difference : trimesh.Trimesh
          Difference between self and other Trimesh objects
        """
        result = boolean.difference(meshes=np.append(self, other),
                                    engine=engine, **kwargs)
        return result

    def intersection(self, other, engine=None, **kwargs):
        """
        Boolean intersection between this mesh and n other meshes

        Parameters
        ------------
        other : trimesh.Trimesh, or list of trimesh.Trimesh objects
          Meshes to calculate intersections with

        Returns
        ---------
        intersection : trimesh.Trimesh
          Mesh of the volume contained by all passed meshes
        """
        result = boolean.intersection(meshes=np.append(self, other),
                                      engine=engine, **kwargs)
        return result

    def contains(self, points):
        """
        Given an array of points determine whether or not they
        are inside the mesh. This raises an error if called on a
        non-watertight mesh.

        Parameters
        ------------
        points : (n, 3) float
          Points in cartesian space

        Returns
        ---------
        contains : (n, ) bool
          Whether or not each point is inside the mesh
        """
        return self.ray.contains_points(points)

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def face_angles(self):
        """
        Returns the angle at each vertex of a face.

        Returns
        --------
        angles : (len(self.faces), 3) float
          Angle at each vertex of a face
        """
        angles = triangles.angles(self.triangles)
        return angles

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def face_angles_sparse(self):
        """
        A sparse matrix representation of the face angles.

        Returns
        ----------
        sparse : scipy.sparse.coo_matrix
          Float sparse matrix with with shape:
          (len(self.vertices), len(self.faces))
        """
        angles = curvature.face_angles_sparse(self)
        return angles

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def vertex_defects(self):
        """
        Return the vertex defects, or (2*pi) minus the sum of the angles
        of every face that includes that vertex.

        If a vertex is only included by coplanar triangles, this
        will be zero. For convex regions this is positive, and
        concave negative.

        Returns
        --------
        vertex_defect : (len(self.vertices), ) float
          Vertex defect at the every vertex
        """
        defects = curvature.vertex_defects(self)
        return defects

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def vertex_degree(self):
        """
        Return the number of faces each vertex is included in.

        Returns
        ----------
        degree : (len(self.vertices), ) int
          Number of faces each vertex is included in
        """
        # get degree through sparse matrix
        degree = np.array(self.faces_sparse.sum(axis=1)).flatten()
        return degree

    @caching.cache_decorator
    def face_adjacency_tree(self):
        """
        An R-tree of face adjacencies.

        Returns
        --------
        tree: rtree.index
          Where each edge in self.face_adjacency has a
          rectangular cell
        """
        # the (n,6) interleaved bounding box for every line segment
        segment_bounds = np.column_stack((
            self.vertices[self.face_adjacency_edges].min(axis=1),
            self.vertices[self.face_adjacency_edges].max(axis=1)))
        tree = util.bounds_tree(segment_bounds)
        return tree

    def copy(self, include_cache=False):
        """
        Safely return a copy of the current mesh.

        By default, copied meshes will have emptied cache
        to avoid memory issues and so may be slow on initial
        operations until caches are regenerated.

        Current object will *never* have its cache cleared.

        Parameters
        ------------
        include_cache : bool
          If True, will shallow copy cached data to new mesh

        Returns
        ---------
        copied : trimesh.Trimesh
          Copy of current mesh
        """
        # start with an empty mesh
        copied = Trimesh()
        # always deepcopy vertex and face data
        copied._data.data = copy.deepcopy(self._data.data)
        # copy visual information
        copied.visual = self.visual.copy()
        # get metadata
        copied.metadata = copy.deepcopy(self.metadata)
        # get center_mass and density
        if self._center_mass is not None:
            copied.center_mass = self.center_mass
        copied._density = self._density

        # make sure cache ID is set initially
        copied._cache.verify()

        if include_cache:
            # shallow copy cached items into the new cache
            # since the data didn't change here when the
            # data in the new mesh is changed these items
            # will be dumped in the new mesh but preserved
            # in the original mesh
            copied._cache.cache.update(self._cache.cache)

        return copied

    def __deepcopy__(self, *args):
        # interpret deep copy as "get rid of cached data"
        return self.copy(include_cache=False)

    def __copy__(self, *args):
        # interpret shallow copy as "keep cached data"
        return self.copy(include_cache=True)

    def eval_cached(self, statement, *args):
        """
        Evaluate a statement and cache the result before returning.

        Statements are evaluated inside the Trimesh object, and

        Parameters
        ------------
        statement : str
          Statement of valid python code
        *args : list
          Available inside statement as args[0], etc

        Returns
        -----------
        result : result of running eval on statement with args

        Examples
        -----------
        r = mesh.eval_cached('np.dot(self.vertices, args[0])', [0, 0, 1])
        """

        statement = str(statement)
        key = 'eval_cached_' + statement
        key += '_'.join(str(i) for i in args)

        if key in self._cache:
            return self._cache[key]

        result = eval(statement)
        self._cache[key] = result
        return result

    def __add__(self, other):
        """
        Concatenate the mesh with another mesh.

        Parameters
        ------------
        other : trimesh.Trimesh object
          Mesh to be concatenated with self

        Returns
        ----------
        concat : trimesh.Trimesh
          Mesh object of combined result
        """
        concat = util.concatenate(self, other)
        return concat
