"""
Generate samples of synthetic data sets.
"""

# Authors: The jax-sklearn developers
# SPDX-License-Identifier: BSD-3-Clause

import array
import numbers
from collections.abc import Iterable
from numbers import Integral, Real

import numpy as np
import scipy.sparse as sp
from scipy import linalg

from xlearn.utils import Bunch

from ..preprocessing import MultiLabelBinarizer
from ..utils import check_array, check_random_state
from ..utils import shuffle as util_shuffle
from ..utils._param_validation import Interval, StrOptions, validate_params
from ..utils.random import sample_without_replacement


def _generate_hypercube(samples, dimensions, rng):
    """Returns distinct binary samples of length dimensions."""
    if dimensions > 30:
        return np.hstack(
            [
                rng.randint(2, size=(samples, dimensions - 30)),
                _generate_hypercube(samples, 30, rng),
            ]
        )
    out = sample_without_replacement(2**dimensions, samples, random_state=rng).astype(
        dtype=">u4", copy=False
    )
    out = np.unpackbits(out.view(">u1")).reshape((-1, 32))[:, -dimensions:]
    return out


@validate_params(
    {
        "n_samples": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "n_features": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "n_informative": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "n_redundant": [Interval(Integral, 0, None, closed="left")],
        "n_repeated": [Interval(Integral, 0, None, closed="left")],
        "n_classes": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "n_clusters_per_class": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "weights": ["array-like", None],
        "flip_y": [Interval(Real, 0, 1, closed="both")],
        "class_sep": [Interval(Real, 0, None, closed="neither")],
        "hypercube": ["boolean"],
        "shift": [Interval(Real, None, None, closed="neither"), "array-like", None],
        "scale": [Interval(Real, 0, None, closed="neither"), "array-like", None],
        "shuffle": ["boolean"],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
        "return_X_y": ["boolean"],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_classification(
    n_samples=100,
    n_features=20,
    *,
    n_informative=2,
    n_redundant=2,
    n_repeated=0,
    n_classes=2,
    n_clusters_per_class=2,
    weights=None,
    flip_y=0.01,
    class_sep=1.0,
    hypercube=True,
    shift=0.0,
    scale=1.0,
    shuffle=True,
    random_state=None,
    return_X_y=True,
):
    """Generate a random n-class classification problem.

    This initially creates clusters of points normally distributed (std=1)
    about vertices of an ``n_informative``-dimensional hypercube with sides of
    length ``2*class_sep`` and assigns an equal number of clusters to each
    class. It introduces interdependence between these features and adds
    various types of further noise to the data.

    Without shuffling, ``X`` horizontally stacks features in the following
    order: the primary ``n_informative`` features, followed by ``n_redundant``
    linear combinations of the informative features, followed by ``n_repeated``
    duplicates, drawn randomly with replacement from the informative and
    redundant features. The remaining features are filled with random noise.
    Thus, without shuffling, all useful features are contained in the columns
    ``X[:, :n_informative + n_redundant + n_repeated]``.

    Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    n_samples : int, default=100
        The number of samples.

    n_features : int, default=20
        The total number of features. These comprise ``n_informative``
        informative features, ``n_redundant`` redundant features,
        ``n_repeated`` duplicated features and
        ``n_features-n_informative-n_redundant-n_repeated`` useless features
        drawn at random.

    n_informative : int, default=2
        The number of informative features. Each class is composed of a number
        of gaussian clusters each located around the vertices of a hypercube
        in a subspace of dimension ``n_informative``. For each cluster,
        informative features are drawn independently from  N(0, 1) and then
        randomly linearly combined within each cluster in order to add
        covariance. The clusters are then placed on the vertices of the
        hypercube.

    n_redundant : int, default=2
        The number of redundant features. These features are generated as
        random linear combinations of the informative features.

    n_repeated : int, default=0
        The number of duplicated features, drawn randomly from the informative
        and the redundant features.

    n_classes : int, default=2
        The number of classes (or labels) of the classification problem.

    n_clusters_per_class : int, default=2
        The number of clusters per class.

    weights : array-like of shape (n_classes,) or (n_classes - 1,),\
              default=None
        The proportions of samples assigned to each class. If None, then
        classes are balanced. Note that if ``len(weights) == n_classes - 1``,
        then the last class weight is automatically inferred.
        More than ``n_samples`` samples may be returned if the sum of
        ``weights`` exceeds 1. Note that the actual class proportions will
        not exactly match ``weights`` when ``flip_y`` isn't 0.

    flip_y : float, default=0.01
        The fraction of samples whose class is assigned randomly. Larger
        values introduce noise in the labels and make the classification
        task harder. Note that the default setting flip_y > 0 might lead
        to less than ``n_classes`` in y in some cases.

    class_sep : float, default=1.0
        The factor multiplying the hypercube size.  Larger values spread
        out the clusters/classes and make the classification task easier.

    hypercube : bool, default=True
        If True, the clusters are put on the vertices of a hypercube. If
        False, the clusters are put on the vertices of a random polytope.

    shift : float, ndarray of shape (n_features,) or None, default=0.0
        Shift features by the specified value. If None, then features
        are shifted by a random value drawn in [-class_sep, class_sep].

    scale : float, ndarray of shape (n_features,) or None, default=1.0
        Multiply features by the specified value. If None, then features
        are scaled by a random value drawn in [1, 100]. Note that scaling
        happens after shifting.

    shuffle : bool, default=True
        Shuffle the samples and the features.

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset creation. Pass an int
        for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    return_X_y : bool, default=True
        If True, a tuple ``(X, y)`` instead of a Bunch object is returned.

        .. versionadded:: 1.7

    Returns
    -------
    data : :class:`~xlearn.utils.Bunch` if `return_X_y` is `False`.
        Dictionary-like object, with the following attributes.

        DESCR : str
            A description of the function that generated the dataset.
        parameter : dict
            A dictionary that stores the values of the arguments passed to the
            generator function.
        feature_info : list of len(n_features)
            A description for each generated feature.
        X : ndarray of shape (n_samples, n_features)
            The generated samples.
        y : ndarray of shape (n_samples,)
            An integer label for class membership of each sample.

        .. versionadded:: 1.7

    (X, y) : tuple if ``return_X_y`` is True
        A tuple of generated samples and labels.

    See Also
    --------
    make_blobs : Simplified variant.
    make_multilabel_classification : Unrelated generator for multilabel tasks.

    Notes
    -----
    The algorithm is adapted from Guyon [1] and was designed to generate
    the "Madelon" dataset.

    References
    ----------
    .. [1] I. Guyon, "Design of experiments for the NIPS 2003 variable
           selection benchmark", 2003.

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_classification
    >>> X, y = make_classification(random_state=42)
    >>> X.shape
    (100, 20)
    >>> y.shape
    (100,)
    >>> list(y[:5])
    [np.int64(0), np.int64(0), np.int64(1), np.int64(1), np.int64(0)]
    """
    generator = check_random_state(random_state)

    # Count features, clusters and samples
    if n_informative + n_redundant + n_repeated > n_features:
        raise ValueError(
            "Number of informative, redundant and repeated "
            "features must sum to less than the number of total"
            " features"
        )
    # Use log2 to avoid overflow errors
    if n_informative < np.log2(n_classes * n_clusters_per_class):
        msg = "n_classes({}) * n_clusters_per_class({}) must be"
        msg += " smaller or equal 2**n_informative({})={}"
        raise ValueError(
            msg.format(n_classes, n_clusters_per_class, n_informative, 2**n_informative)
        )

    if weights is not None:
        # we define new variable, weight_, instead of modifying user defined parameter.
        if len(weights) not in [n_classes, n_classes - 1]:
            raise ValueError(
                "Weights specified but incompatible with number of classes."
            )
        if len(weights) == n_classes - 1:
            if isinstance(weights, list):
                weights_ = weights + [1.0 - sum(weights)]
            else:
                weights_ = np.resize(weights, n_classes)
                weights_[-1] = 1.0 - sum(weights_[:-1])
        else:
            weights_ = weights.copy()
    else:
        weights_ = [1.0 / n_classes] * n_classes

    n_random = n_features - n_informative - n_redundant - n_repeated
    n_clusters = n_classes * n_clusters_per_class

    # Distribute samples among clusters by weight
    n_samples_per_cluster = [
        int(n_samples * weights_[k % n_classes] / n_clusters_per_class)
        for k in range(n_clusters)
    ]

    for i in range(n_samples - sum(n_samples_per_cluster)):
        n_samples_per_cluster[i % n_clusters] += 1

    # Initialize X and y
    X = np.zeros((n_samples, n_features))
    y = np.zeros(n_samples, dtype=int)

    # Build the polytope whose vertices become cluster centroids
    centroids = _generate_hypercube(n_clusters, n_informative, generator).astype(
        float, copy=False
    )
    centroids *= 2 * class_sep
    centroids -= class_sep
    if not hypercube:
        centroids *= generator.uniform(size=(n_clusters, 1))
        centroids *= generator.uniform(size=(1, n_informative))

    # Initially draw informative features from the standard normal
    X[:, :n_informative] = generator.standard_normal(size=(n_samples, n_informative))

    # Create each cluster; a variant of make_blobs
    stop = 0
    for k, centroid in enumerate(centroids):
        start, stop = stop, stop + n_samples_per_cluster[k]
        y[start:stop] = k % n_classes  # assign labels
        X_k = X[start:stop, :n_informative]  # slice a view of the cluster

        A = 2 * generator.uniform(size=(n_informative, n_informative)) - 1
        X_k[...] = np.dot(X_k, A)  # introduce random covariance

        X_k += centroid  # shift the cluster to a vertex

    # Create redundant features
    if n_redundant > 0:
        B = 2 * generator.uniform(size=(n_informative, n_redundant)) - 1
        X[:, n_informative : n_informative + n_redundant] = np.dot(
            X[:, :n_informative], B
        )

    # Repeat some features
    n = n_informative + n_redundant
    if n_repeated > 0:
        indices = ((n - 1) * generator.uniform(size=n_repeated) + 0.5).astype(np.intp)
        X[:, n : n + n_repeated] = X[:, indices]

    # Fill useless features
    if n_random > 0:
        X[:, -n_random:] = generator.standard_normal(size=(n_samples, n_random))

    # Randomly replace labels
    if flip_y >= 0.0:
        flip_mask = generator.uniform(size=n_samples) < flip_y
        y[flip_mask] = generator.randint(n_classes, size=flip_mask.sum())

    # Randomly shift and scale
    if shift is None:
        shift = (2 * generator.uniform(size=n_features) - 1) * class_sep
    X += shift

    if scale is None:
        scale = 1 + 100 * generator.uniform(size=n_features)
    X *= scale

    indices = np.arange(n_features)
    if shuffle:
        # Randomly permute samples
        X, y = util_shuffle(X, y, random_state=generator)

        # Randomly permute features
        generator.shuffle(indices)
        X[:, :] = X[:, indices]

    if return_X_y:
        return X, y

    # feat_desc describes features in X
    feat_desc = ["random"] * n_features
    for i, index in enumerate(indices):
        if index < n_informative:
            feat_desc[i] = "informative"
        elif n_informative <= index < n_informative + n_redundant:
            feat_desc[i] = "redundant"
        elif n <= index < n + n_repeated:
            feat_desc[i] = "repeated"

    parameters = {
        "n_samples": n_samples,
        "n_features": n_features,
        "n_informative": n_informative,
        "n_redundant": n_redundant,
        "n_repeated": n_repeated,
        "n_classes": n_classes,
        "n_clusters_per_class": n_clusters_per_class,
        "weights": weights,
        "flip_y": flip_y,
        "class_sep": class_sep,
        "hypercube": hypercube,
        "shift": shift,
        "scale": scale,
        "shuffle": shuffle,
        "random_state": random_state,
        "return_X_y": return_X_y,
    }

    bunch = Bunch(
        DESCR=make_classification.__doc__,
        parameters=parameters,
        feature_info=feat_desc,
        X=X,
        y=y,
    )

    return bunch


@validate_params(
    {
        "n_samples": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "n_features": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "n_classes": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "n_labels": [Interval(Integral, 0, None, closed="left")],
        "length": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "allow_unlabeled": ["boolean"],
        "sparse": ["boolean"],
        "return_indicator": [StrOptions({"dense", "sparse"}), "boolean"],
        "return_distributions": ["boolean"],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_multilabel_classification(
    n_samples=100,
    n_features=20,
    *,
    n_classes=5,
    n_labels=2,
    length=50,
    allow_unlabeled=True,
    sparse=False,
    return_indicator="dense",
    return_distributions=False,
    random_state=None,
):
    """Generate a random multilabel classification problem.

    For each sample, the generative process is:
        - pick the number of labels: n ~ Poisson(n_labels)
        - n times, choose a class c: c ~ Multinomial(theta)
        - pick the document length: k ~ Poisson(length)
        - k times, choose a word: w ~ Multinomial(theta_c)

    In the above process, rejection sampling is used to make sure that
    n is never zero or more than `n_classes`, and that the document length
    is never zero. Likewise, we reject classes which have already been chosen.

    For an example of usage, see
    :ref:`sphx_glr_auto_examples_datasets_plot_random_multilabel_dataset.py`.

    Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    n_samples : int, default=100
        The number of samples.

    n_features : int, default=20
        The total number of features.

    n_classes : int, default=5
        The number of classes of the classification problem.

    n_labels : int, default=2
        The average number of labels per instance. More precisely, the number
        of labels per sample is drawn from a Poisson distribution with
        ``n_labels`` as its expected value, but samples are bounded (using
        rejection sampling) by ``n_classes``, and must be nonzero if
        ``allow_unlabeled`` is False.

    length : int, default=50
        The sum of the features (number of words if documents) is drawn from
        a Poisson distribution with this expected value.

    allow_unlabeled : bool, default=True
        If ``True``, some instances might not belong to any class.

    sparse : bool, default=False
        If ``True``, return a sparse feature matrix.

        .. versionadded:: 0.17
           parameter to allow *sparse* output.

    return_indicator : {'dense', 'sparse'} or False, default='dense'
        If ``'dense'`` return ``Y`` in the dense binary indicator format. If
        ``'sparse'`` return ``Y`` in the sparse binary indicator format.
        ``False`` returns a list of lists of labels.

    return_distributions : bool, default=False
        If ``True``, return the prior class probability and conditional
        probabilities of features given classes, from which the data was
        drawn.

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset creation. Pass an int
        for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    Returns
    -------
    X : ndarray of shape (n_samples, n_features)
        The generated samples.

    Y : {ndarray, sparse matrix} of shape (n_samples, n_classes)
        The label sets. Sparse matrix should be of CSR format.

    p_c : ndarray of shape (n_classes,)
        The probability of each class being drawn. Only returned if
        ``return_distributions=True``.

    p_w_c : ndarray of shape (n_features, n_classes)
        The probability of each feature being drawn given each class.
        Only returned if ``return_distributions=True``.

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_multilabel_classification
    >>> X, y = make_multilabel_classification(n_labels=3, random_state=42)
    >>> X.shape
    (100, 20)
    >>> y.shape
    (100, 5)
    >>> list(y[:3])
    [array([1, 1, 0, 1, 0]), array([0, 1, 1, 1, 0]), array([0, 1, 0, 0, 0])]
    """

    generator = check_random_state(random_state)
    p_c = generator.uniform(size=n_classes)
    p_c /= p_c.sum()
    cumulative_p_c = np.cumsum(p_c)
    p_w_c = generator.uniform(size=(n_features, n_classes))
    p_w_c /= np.sum(p_w_c, axis=0)

    def sample_example():
        _, n_classes = p_w_c.shape

        # pick a nonzero number of labels per document by rejection sampling
        y_size = n_classes + 1
        while (not allow_unlabeled and y_size == 0) or y_size > n_classes:
            y_size = generator.poisson(n_labels)

        # pick n classes
        y = set()
        while len(y) != y_size:
            # pick a class with probability P(c)
            c = np.searchsorted(cumulative_p_c, generator.uniform(size=y_size - len(y)))
            y.update(c)
        y = list(y)

        # pick a non-zero document length by rejection sampling
        n_words = 0
        while n_words == 0:
            n_words = generator.poisson(length)

        # generate a document of length n_words
        if len(y) == 0:
            # if sample does not belong to any class, generate noise word
            words = generator.randint(n_features, size=n_words)
            return words, y

        # sample words with replacement from selected classes
        cumulative_p_w_sample = p_w_c.take(y, axis=1).sum(axis=1).cumsum()
        cumulative_p_w_sample /= cumulative_p_w_sample[-1]
        words = np.searchsorted(cumulative_p_w_sample, generator.uniform(size=n_words))
        return words, y

    X_indices = array.array("i")
    X_indptr = array.array("i", [0])
    Y = []
    for i in range(n_samples):
        words, y = sample_example()
        X_indices.extend(words)
        X_indptr.append(len(X_indices))
        Y.append(y)
    X_data = np.ones(len(X_indices), dtype=np.float64)
    X = sp.csr_matrix((X_data, X_indices, X_indptr), shape=(n_samples, n_features))
    X.sum_duplicates()
    if not sparse:
        X = X.toarray()

    # return_indicator can be True due to backward compatibility
    if return_indicator in (True, "sparse", "dense"):
        lb = MultiLabelBinarizer(sparse_output=(return_indicator == "sparse"))
        Y = lb.fit([range(n_classes)]).transform(Y)
    if return_distributions:
        return X, Y, p_c, p_w_c
    return X, Y


@validate_params(
    {
        "n_samples": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_hastie_10_2(n_samples=12000, *, random_state=None):
    """Generate data for binary classification used in Hastie et al. 2009, Example 10.2.

    The ten features are standard independent Gaussian and
    the target ``y`` is defined by::

      y[i] = 1 if np.sum(X[i] ** 2) > 9.34 else -1

    Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    n_samples : int, default=12000
        The number of samples.

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset creation. Pass an int
        for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    Returns
    -------
    X : ndarray of shape (n_samples, 10)
        The input samples.

    y : ndarray of shape (n_samples,)
        The output values.

    See Also
    --------
    make_gaussian_quantiles : A generalization of this dataset approach.

    References
    ----------
    .. [1] T. Hastie, R. Tibshirani and J. Friedman, "Elements of Statistical
           Learning Ed. 2", Springer, 2009.

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_hastie_10_2
    >>> X, y = make_hastie_10_2(n_samples=24000, random_state=42)
    >>> X.shape
    (24000, 10)
    >>> y.shape
    (24000,)
    >>> list(y[:5])
    [np.float64(-1.0), np.float64(1.0), np.float64(-1.0), np.float64(1.0),
    np.float64(-1.0)]
    """
    rs = check_random_state(random_state)

    shape = (n_samples, 10)
    X = rs.normal(size=shape).reshape(shape)
    y = ((X**2.0).sum(axis=1) > 9.34).astype(np.float64, copy=False)
    y[y == 0.0] = -1.0

    return X, y


@validate_params(
    {
        "n_samples": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "n_features": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "n_informative": [Interval(Integral, 0, None, closed="left")],
        "n_targets": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "bias": [Interval(Real, None, None, closed="neither")],
        "effective_rank": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left"), None],
        "tail_strength": [Interval(Real, 0, 1, closed="both")],
        "noise": [Interval(Real, 0, None, closed="left")],
        "shuffle": ["boolean"],
        "coef": ["boolean"],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_regression(
    n_samples=100,
    n_features=100,
    *,
    n_informative=10,
    n_targets=1,
    bias=0.0,
    effective_rank=None,
    tail_strength=0.5,
    noise=0.0,
    shuffle=True,
    coef=False,
    random_state=None,
):
    """Generate a random regression problem.

    The input set can either be well conditioned (by default) or have a low
    rank-fat tail singular profile. See :func:`make_low_rank_matrix` for
    more details.

    The output is generated by applying a (potentially biased) random linear
    regression model with `n_informative` nonzero regressors to the previously
    generated input and some gaussian centered noise with some adjustable
    scale.

    Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    n_samples : int, default=100
        The number of samples.

    n_features : int, default=100
        The number of features.

    n_informative : int, default=10
        The number of informative features, i.e., the number of features used
        to build the linear model used to generate the output.

    n_targets : int, default=1
        The number of regression targets, i.e., the dimension of the y output
        vector associated with a sample. By default, the output is a scalar.

    bias : float, default=0.0
        The bias term in the underlying linear model.

    effective_rank : int, default=None
        If not None:
            The approximate number of singular vectors required to explain most
            of the input data by linear combinations. Using this kind of
            singular spectrum in the input allows the generator to reproduce
            the correlations often observed in practice.
        If None:
            The input set is well conditioned, centered and gaussian with
            unit variance.

    tail_strength : float, default=0.5
        The relative importance of the fat noisy tail of the singular values
        profile if `effective_rank` is not None. When a float, it should be
        between 0 and 1.

    noise : float, default=0.0
        The standard deviation of the gaussian noise applied to the output.

    shuffle : bool, default=True
        Shuffle the samples and the features.

    coef : bool, default=False
        If True, the coefficients of the underlying linear model are returned.

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset creation. Pass an int
        for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    Returns
    -------
    X : ndarray of shape (n_samples, n_features)
        The input samples.

    y : ndarray of shape (n_samples,) or (n_samples, n_targets)
        The output values.

    coef : ndarray of shape (n_features,) or (n_features, n_targets)
        The coefficient of the underlying linear model. It is returned only if
        coef is True.

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_regression
    >>> X, y = make_regression(n_samples=5, n_features=2, noise=1, random_state=42)
    >>> X
    array([[ 0.4967, -0.1382 ],
        [ 0.6476,  1.523],
        [-0.2341, -0.2341],
        [-0.4694,  0.5425],
        [ 1.579,  0.7674]])
    >>> y
    array([  6.737,  37.79, -10.27,   0.4017,   42.22])
    """
    n_informative = min(n_features, n_informative)
    generator = check_random_state(random_state)

    if effective_rank is None:
        # Randomly generate a well conditioned input set
        X = generator.standard_normal(size=(n_samples, n_features))

    else:
        # Randomly generate a low rank, fat tail input set
        X = make_low_rank_matrix(
            n_samples=n_samples,
            n_features=n_features,
            effective_rank=effective_rank,
            tail_strength=tail_strength,
            random_state=generator,
        )

    # Generate a ground truth model with only n_informative features being non
    # zeros (the other features are not correlated to y and should be ignored
    # by a sparsifying regularizers such as L1 or elastic net)
    ground_truth = np.zeros((n_features, n_targets))
    ground_truth[:n_informative, :] = 100 * generator.uniform(
        size=(n_informative, n_targets)
    )

    y = np.dot(X, ground_truth) + bias

    # Add noise
    if noise > 0.0:
        y += generator.normal(scale=noise, size=y.shape)

    # Randomly permute samples and features
    if shuffle:
        X, y = util_shuffle(X, y, random_state=generator)

        indices = np.arange(n_features)
        generator.shuffle(indices)
        X[:, :] = X[:, indices]
        ground_truth = ground_truth[indices]

    y = np.squeeze(y)

    if coef:
        return X, y, np.squeeze(ground_truth)

    else:
        return X, y


@validate_params(
    {
        "n_samples": [Interval(Integral, 0, None, closed="left"), tuple],
        "shuffle": ["boolean"],
        "noise": [Interval(Real, 0, None, closed="left"), None],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
        "factor": [Interval(Real, 0, 1, closed="left")],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_circles(
    n_samples=100, *, shuffle=True, noise=None, random_state=None, factor=0.8
):
    """Make a large circle containing a smaller circle in 2d.

    A simple toy dataset to visualize clustering and classification
    algorithms.

    Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    n_samples : int or tuple of shape (2,), dtype=int, default=100
        If int, it is the total number of points generated.
        For odd numbers, the inner circle will have one point more than the
        outer circle.
        If two-element tuple, number of points in outer circle and inner
        circle.

        .. versionchanged:: 0.23
           Added two-element tuple.

    shuffle : bool, default=True
        Whether to shuffle the samples.

    noise : float, default=None
        Standard deviation of Gaussian noise added to the data.

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset shuffling and noise.
        Pass an int for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    factor : float, default=.8
        Scale factor between inner and outer circle in the range `[0, 1)`.

    Returns
    -------
    X : ndarray of shape (n_samples, 2)
        The generated samples.

    y : ndarray of shape (n_samples,)
        The integer labels (0 or 1) for class membership of each sample.

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_circles
    >>> X, y = make_circles(random_state=42)
    >>> X.shape
    (100, 2)
    >>> y.shape
    (100,)
    >>> list(y[:5])
    [np.int64(1), np.int64(1), np.int64(1), np.int64(0), np.int64(0)]
    """
    if isinstance(n_samples, numbers.Integral):
        n_samples_out = n_samples // 2
        n_samples_in = n_samples - n_samples_out
    else:  # n_samples is a tuple
        if len(n_samples) != 2:
            raise ValueError("When a tuple, n_samples must have exactly two elements.")
        n_samples_out, n_samples_in = n_samples

    generator = check_random_state(random_state)
    # so as not to have the first point = last point, we set endpoint=False
    linspace_out = np.linspace(0, 2 * np.pi, n_samples_out, endpoint=False)
    linspace_in = np.linspace(0, 2 * np.pi, n_samples_in, endpoint=False)
    outer_circ_x = np.cos(linspace_out)
    outer_circ_y = np.sin(linspace_out)
    inner_circ_x = np.cos(linspace_in) * factor
    inner_circ_y = np.sin(linspace_in) * factor

    X = np.vstack(
        [np.append(outer_circ_x, inner_circ_x), np.append(outer_circ_y, inner_circ_y)]
    ).T
    y = np.hstack(
        [np.zeros(n_samples_out, dtype=np.intp), np.ones(n_samples_in, dtype=np.intp)]
    )
    if shuffle:
        X, y = util_shuffle(X, y, random_state=generator)

    if noise is not None:
        X += generator.normal(scale=noise, size=X.shape)

    return X, y


@validate_params(
    {
        "n_samples": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left"), tuple],
        "shuffle": ["boolean"],
        "noise": [Interval(Real, 0, None, closed="left"), None],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_moons(n_samples=100, *, shuffle=True, noise=None, random_state=None):
    """Make two interleaving half circles.

    A simple toy dataset to visualize clustering and classification
    algorithms. Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    n_samples : int or tuple of shape (2,), dtype=int, default=100
        If int, the total number of points generated.
        If two-element tuple, number of points in each of two moons.

        .. versionchanged:: 0.23
           Added two-element tuple.

    shuffle : bool, default=True
        Whether to shuffle the samples.

    noise : float, default=None
        Standard deviation of Gaussian noise added to the data.

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset shuffling and noise.
        Pass an int for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    Returns
    -------
    X : ndarray of shape (n_samples, 2)
        The generated samples.

    y : ndarray of shape (n_samples,)
        The integer labels (0 or 1) for class membership of each sample.

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_moons
    >>> X, y = make_moons(n_samples=200, noise=0.2, random_state=42)
    >>> X.shape
    (200, 2)
    >>> y.shape
    (200,)
    """

    if isinstance(n_samples, numbers.Integral):
        n_samples_out = n_samples // 2
        n_samples_in = n_samples - n_samples_out
    else:
        try:
            n_samples_out, n_samples_in = n_samples
        except ValueError as e:
            raise ValueError(
                "`n_samples` can be either an int or a two-element tuple."
            ) from e

    generator = check_random_state(random_state)

    outer_circ_x = np.cos(np.linspace(0, np.pi, n_samples_out))
    outer_circ_y = np.sin(np.linspace(0, np.pi, n_samples_out))
    inner_circ_x = 1 - np.cos(np.linspace(0, np.pi, n_samples_in))
    inner_circ_y = 1 - np.sin(np.linspace(0, np.pi, n_samples_in)) - 0.5

    X = np.vstack(
        [np.append(outer_circ_x, inner_circ_x), np.append(outer_circ_y, inner_circ_y)]
    ).T
    y = np.hstack(
        [np.zeros(n_samples_out, dtype=np.intp), np.ones(n_samples_in, dtype=np.intp)]
    )

    if shuffle:
        X, y = util_shuffle(X, y, random_state=generator)

    if noise is not None:
        X += generator.normal(scale=noise, size=X.shape)

    return X, y


@validate_params(
    {
        "n_samples": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left"), "array-like"],
        "n_features": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "centers": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left"), "array-like", None],
        "cluster_std": [Interval(Real, 0, None, closed="left"), "array-like"],
        "center_box": [tuple],
        "shuffle": ["boolean"],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
        "return_centers": ["boolean"],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_blobs(
    n_samples=100,
    n_features=2,
    *,
    centers=None,
    cluster_std=1.0,
    center_box=(-10.0, 10.0),
    shuffle=True,
    random_state=None,
    return_centers=False,
):
    """Generate isotropic Gaussian blobs for clustering.

    Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    n_samples : int or array-like, default=100
        If int, it is the total number of points equally divided among
        clusters.
        If array-like, each element of the sequence indicates
        the number of samples per cluster.

        .. versionchanged:: v0.20
            one can now pass an array-like to the ``n_samples`` parameter

    n_features : int, default=2
        The number of features for each sample.

    centers : int or array-like of shape (n_centers, n_features), default=None
        The number of centers to generate, or the fixed center locations.
        If n_samples is an int and centers is None, 3 centers are generated.
        If n_samples is array-like, centers must be
        either None or an array of length equal to the length of n_samples.

    cluster_std : float or array-like of float, default=1.0
        The standard deviation of the clusters.

    center_box : tuple of float (min, max), default=(-10.0, 10.0)
        The bounding box for each cluster center when centers are
        generated at random.

    shuffle : bool, default=True
        Shuffle the samples.

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset creation. Pass an int
        for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    return_centers : bool, default=False
        If True, then return the centers of each cluster.

        .. versionadded:: 0.23

    Returns
    -------
    X : ndarray of shape (n_samples, n_features)
        The generated samples.

    y : ndarray of shape (n_samples,)
        The integer labels for cluster membership of each sample.

    centers : ndarray of shape (n_centers, n_features)
        The centers of each cluster. Only returned if
        ``return_centers=True``.

    See Also
    --------
    make_classification : A more intricate variant.

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_blobs
    >>> X, y = make_blobs(n_samples=10, centers=3, n_features=2,
    ...                   random_state=0)
    >>> print(X.shape)
    (10, 2)
    >>> y
    array([0, 0, 1, 0, 2, 2, 2, 1, 1, 0])
    >>> X, y = make_blobs(n_samples=[3, 3, 4], centers=None, n_features=2,
    ...                   random_state=0)
    >>> print(X.shape)
    (10, 2)
    >>> y
    array([0, 1, 2, 0, 2, 2, 2, 1, 1, 0])
    """
    generator = check_random_state(random_state)

    if isinstance(n_samples, numbers.Integral):
        # Set n_centers by looking at centers arg
        if centers is None:
            centers = 3

        if isinstance(centers, numbers.Integral):
            n_centers = centers
            centers = generator.uniform(
                center_box[0], center_box[1], size=(n_centers, n_features)
            )

        else:
            centers = check_array(centers)
            n_features = centers.shape[1]
            n_centers = centers.shape[0]

    else:
        # Set n_centers by looking at [n_samples] arg
        n_centers = len(n_samples)
        if centers is None:
            centers = generator.uniform(
                center_box[0], center_box[1], size=(n_centers, n_features)
            )
        if not isinstance(centers, Iterable):
            raise ValueError(
                "Parameter `centers` must be array-like. Got {!r} instead".format(
                    centers
                )
            )
        if len(centers) != n_centers:
            raise ValueError(
                "Length of `n_samples` not consistent with number of "
                f"centers. Got n_samples = {n_samples} and centers = {centers}"
            )
        centers = check_array(centers)
        n_features = centers.shape[1]

    # stds: if cluster_std is given as list, it must be consistent
    # with the n_centers
    if hasattr(cluster_std, "__len__") and len(cluster_std) != n_centers:
        raise ValueError(
            "Length of `clusters_std` not consistent with "
            "number of centers. Got centers = {} "
            "and cluster_std = {}".format(centers, cluster_std)
        )

    if isinstance(cluster_std, numbers.Real):
        cluster_std = np.full(len(centers), cluster_std)

    if isinstance(n_samples, Iterable):
        n_samples_per_center = n_samples
    else:
        n_samples_per_center = [int(n_samples // n_centers)] * n_centers

        for i in range(n_samples % n_centers):
            n_samples_per_center[i] += 1

    cum_sum_n_samples = np.cumsum(n_samples_per_center)
    X = np.empty(shape=(sum(n_samples_per_center), n_features), dtype=np.float64)
    y = np.empty(shape=(sum(n_samples_per_center),), dtype=int)

    for i, (n, std) in enumerate(zip(n_samples_per_center, cluster_std)):
        start_idx = cum_sum_n_samples[i - 1] if i > 0 else 0
        end_idx = cum_sum_n_samples[i]
        X[start_idx:end_idx] = generator.normal(
            loc=centers[i], scale=std, size=(n, n_features)
        )
        y[start_idx:end_idx] = i

    if shuffle:
        X, y = util_shuffle(X, y, random_state=generator)

    if return_centers:
        return X, y, centers
    else:
        return X, y


@validate_params(
    {
        "n_samples": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "n_features": [Interval(Integral, 5, None, closed="left")],
        "noise": [Interval(Real, 0.0, None, closed="left")],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_friedman1(n_samples=100, n_features=10, *, noise=0.0, random_state=None):
    """Generate the "Friedman #1" regression problem.

    This dataset is described in Friedman [1] and Breiman [2].

    Inputs `X` are independent features uniformly distributed on the interval
    [0, 1]. The output `y` is created according to the formula::

        y(X) = 10 * sin(pi * X[:, 0] * X[:, 1]) + 20 * (X[:, 2] - 0.5) ** 2 \
+ 10 * X[:, 3] + 5 * X[:, 4] + noise * N(0, 1).

    Out of the `n_features` features, only 5 are actually used to compute
    `y`. The remaining features are independent of `y`.

    The number of features has to be >= 5.

    Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    n_samples : int, default=100
        The number of samples.

    n_features : int, default=10
        The number of features. Should be at least 5.

    noise : float, default=0.0
        The standard deviation of the gaussian noise applied to the output.

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset noise. Pass an int
        for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    Returns
    -------
    X : ndarray of shape (n_samples, n_features)
        The input samples.

    y : ndarray of shape (n_samples,)
        The output values.

    References
    ----------
    .. [1] J. Friedman, "Multivariate adaptive regression splines", The Annals
           of Statistics 19 (1), pages 1-67, 1991.

    .. [2] L. Breiman, "Bagging predictors", Machine Learning 24,
           pages 123-140, 1996.

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_friedman1
    >>> X, y = make_friedman1(random_state=42)
    >>> X.shape
    (100, 10)
    >>> y.shape
    (100,)
    >>> list(y[:3])
    [np.float64(16.8), np.float64(5.87), np.float64(9.46)]
    """
    generator = check_random_state(random_state)

    X = generator.uniform(size=(n_samples, n_features))
    y = (
        10 * np.sin(np.pi * X[:, 0] * X[:, 1])
        + 20 * (X[:, 2] - 0.5) ** 2
        + 10 * X[:, 3]
        + 5 * X[:, 4]
        + noise * generator.standard_normal(size=(n_samples))
    )

    return X, y


@validate_params(
    {
        "n_samples": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "noise": [Interval(Real, 0, None, closed="left")],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_friedman2(n_samples=100, *, noise=0.0, random_state=None):
    """Generate the "Friedman #2" regression problem.

    This dataset is described in Friedman [1] and Breiman [2].

    Inputs `X` are 4 independent features uniformly distributed on the
    intervals::

        0 <= X[:, 0] <= 100,
        40 * pi <= X[:, 1] <= 560 * pi,
        0 <= X[:, 2] <= 1,
        1 <= X[:, 3] <= 11.

    The output `y` is created according to the formula::

        y(X) = (X[:, 0] ** 2 + (X[:, 1] * X[:, 2] \
 - 1 / (X[:, 1] * X[:, 3])) ** 2) ** 0.5 + noise * N(0, 1).

    Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    n_samples : int, default=100
        The number of samples.

    noise : float, default=0.0
        The standard deviation of the gaussian noise applied to the output.

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset noise. Pass an int
        for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    Returns
    -------
    X : ndarray of shape (n_samples, 4)
        The input samples.

    y : ndarray of shape (n_samples,)
        The output values.

    References
    ----------
    .. [1] J. Friedman, "Multivariate adaptive regression splines", The Annals
           of Statistics 19 (1), pages 1-67, 1991.

    .. [2] L. Breiman, "Bagging predictors", Machine Learning 24,
           pages 123-140, 1996.

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_friedman2
    >>> X, y = make_friedman2(random_state=42)
    >>> X.shape
    (100, 4)
    >>> y.shape
    (100,)
    >>> list(y[:3])
    [np.float64(1229.4), np.float64(27.0), np.float64(65.6)]
    """
    generator = check_random_state(random_state)

    X = generator.uniform(size=(n_samples, 4))
    X[:, 0] *= 100
    X[:, 1] *= 520 * np.pi
    X[:, 1] += 40 * np.pi
    X[:, 3] *= 10
    X[:, 3] += 1

    y = (
        X[:, 0] ** 2 + (X[:, 1] * X[:, 2] - 1 / (X[:, 1] * X[:, 3])) ** 2
    ) ** 0.5 + noise * generator.standard_normal(size=(n_samples))

    return X, y


@validate_params(
    {
        "n_samples": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "noise": [Interval(Real, 0, None, closed="left")],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_friedman3(n_samples=100, *, noise=0.0, random_state=None):
    """Generate the "Friedman #3" regression problem.

    This dataset is described in Friedman [1] and Breiman [2].

    Inputs `X` are 4 independent features uniformly distributed on the
    intervals::

        0 <= X[:, 0] <= 100,
        40 * pi <= X[:, 1] <= 560 * pi,
        0 <= X[:, 2] <= 1,
        1 <= X[:, 3] <= 11.

    The output `y` is created according to the formula::

        y(X) = arctan((X[:, 1] * X[:, 2] - 1 / (X[:, 1] * X[:, 3])) \
/ X[:, 0]) + noise * N(0, 1).

    Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    n_samples : int, default=100
        The number of samples.

    noise : float, default=0.0
        The standard deviation of the gaussian noise applied to the output.

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset noise. Pass an int
        for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    Returns
    -------
    X : ndarray of shape (n_samples, 4)
        The input samples.

    y : ndarray of shape (n_samples,)
        The output values.

    References
    ----------
    .. [1] J. Friedman, "Multivariate adaptive regression splines", The Annals
           of Statistics 19 (1), pages 1-67, 1991.

    .. [2] L. Breiman, "Bagging predictors", Machine Learning 24,
           pages 123-140, 1996.

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_friedman3
    >>> X, y = make_friedman3(random_state=42)
    >>> X.shape
    (100, 4)
    >>> y.shape
    (100,)
    >>> list(y[:3])
    [np.float64(1.54), np.float64(0.956), np.float64(0.414)]
    """
    generator = check_random_state(random_state)

    X = generator.uniform(size=(n_samples, 4))
    X[:, 0] *= 100
    X[:, 1] *= 520 * np.pi
    X[:, 1] += 40 * np.pi
    X[:, 3] *= 10
    X[:, 3] += 1

    y = np.arctan(
        (X[:, 1] * X[:, 2] - 1 / (X[:, 1] * X[:, 3])) / X[:, 0]
    ) + noise * generator.standard_normal(size=(n_samples))

    return X, y


@validate_params(
    {
        "n_samples": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "n_features": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "effective_rank": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "tail_strength": [Interval(Real, 0, 1, closed="both")],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_low_rank_matrix(
    n_samples=100,
    n_features=100,
    *,
    effective_rank=10,
    tail_strength=0.5,
    random_state=None,
):
    """Generate a mostly low rank matrix with bell-shaped singular values.

    Most of the variance can be explained by a bell-shaped curve of width
    effective_rank: the low rank part of the singular values profile is::

        (1 - tail_strength) * exp(-1.0 * (i / effective_rank) ** 2)

    The remaining singular values' tail is fat, decreasing as::

        tail_strength * exp(-0.1 * i / effective_rank).

    The low rank part of the profile can be considered the structured
    signal part of the data while the tail can be considered the noisy
    part of the data that cannot be summarized by a low number of linear
    components (singular vectors).

    This kind of singular profiles is often seen in practice, for instance:
     - gray level pictures of faces
     - TF-IDF vectors of text documents crawled from the web

    Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    n_samples : int, default=100
        The number of samples.

    n_features : int, default=100
        The number of features.

    effective_rank : int, default=10
        The approximate number of singular vectors required to explain most of
        the data by linear combinations.

    tail_strength : float, default=0.5
        The relative importance of the fat noisy tail of the singular values
        profile. The value should be between 0 and 1.

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset creation. Pass an int
        for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    Returns
    -------
    X : ndarray of shape (n_samples, n_features)
        The matrix.

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from numpy.linalg import svd
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_low_rank_matrix
    >>> X = make_low_rank_matrix(
    ...     n_samples=50,
    ...     n_features=25,
    ...     effective_rank=5,
    ...     tail_strength=0.01,
    ...     random_state=0,
    ... )
    >>> X.shape
    (50, 25)
    """
    generator = check_random_state(random_state)
    n = min(n_samples, n_features)

    # Random (ortho normal) vectors
    u, _ = linalg.qr(
        generator.standard_normal(size=(n_samples, n)),
        mode="economic",
        check_finite=False,
    )
    v, _ = linalg.qr(
        generator.standard_normal(size=(n_features, n)),
        mode="economic",
        check_finite=False,
    )

    # Index of the singular values
    singular_ind = np.arange(n, dtype=np.float64)

    # Build the singular profile by assembling signal and noise components
    low_rank = (1 - tail_strength) * np.exp(-1.0 * (singular_ind / effective_rank) ** 2)
    tail = tail_strength * np.exp(-0.1 * singular_ind / effective_rank)
    s = np.identity(n) * (low_rank + tail)

    return np.dot(np.dot(u, s), v.T)


@validate_params(
    {
        "n_samples": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "n_components": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "n_features": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "n_nonzero_coefs": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_sparse_coded_signal(
    n_samples,
    *,
    n_components,
    n_features,
    n_nonzero_coefs,
    random_state=None,
):
    """Generate a signal as a sparse combination of dictionary elements.

    Returns matrices `Y`, `D` and `X` such that `Y = XD` where `X` is of shape
    `(n_samples, n_components)`, `D` is of shape `(n_components, n_features)`, and
    each row of `X` has exactly `n_nonzero_coefs` non-zero elements.

    Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    n_samples : int
        Number of samples to generate.

    n_components : int
        Number of components in the dictionary.

    n_features : int
        Number of features of the dataset to generate.

    n_nonzero_coefs : int
        Number of active (non-zero) coefficients in each sample.

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset creation. Pass an int
        for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    Returns
    -------
    data : ndarray of shape (n_samples, n_features)
        The encoded signal (Y).

    dictionary : ndarray of shape (n_components, n_features)
        The dictionary with normalized components (D).

    code : ndarray of shape (n_samples, n_components)
        The sparse code such that each column of this matrix has exactly
        n_nonzero_coefs non-zero items (X).

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_sparse_coded_signal
    >>> data, dictionary, code = make_sparse_coded_signal(
    ...     n_samples=50,
    ...     n_components=100,
    ...     n_features=10,
    ...     n_nonzero_coefs=4,
    ...     random_state=0
    ... )
    >>> data.shape
    (50, 10)
    >>> dictionary.shape
    (100, 10)
    >>> code.shape
    (50, 100)
    """
    generator = check_random_state(random_state)

    # generate dictionary
    D = generator.standard_normal(size=(n_features, n_components))
    D /= np.sqrt(np.sum((D**2), axis=0))

    # generate code
    X = np.zeros((n_components, n_samples))
    for i in range(n_samples):
        idx = np.arange(n_components)
        generator.shuffle(idx)
        idx = idx[:n_nonzero_coefs]
        X[idx, i] = generator.standard_normal(size=n_nonzero_coefs)

    # encode signal
    Y = np.dot(D, X)

    # Transpose to have shapes consistent with the rest of the API
    Y, D, X = Y.T, D.T, X.T

    return map(np.squeeze, (Y, D, X))


@validate_params(
    {
        "n_samples": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "n_features": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_sparse_uncorrelated(n_samples=100, n_features=10, *, random_state=None):
    """Generate a random regression problem with sparse uncorrelated design.

    This dataset is described in Celeux et al [1]. as::

        X ~ N(0, 1)
        y(X) = X[:, 0] + 2 * X[:, 1] - 2 * X[:, 2] - 1.5 * X[:, 3]

    Only the first 4 features are informative. The remaining features are
    useless.

    Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    n_samples : int, default=100
        The number of samples.

    n_features : int, default=10
        The number of features.

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset creation. Pass an int
        for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    Returns
    -------
    X : ndarray of shape (n_samples, n_features)
        The input samples.

    y : ndarray of shape (n_samples,)
        The output values.

    References
    ----------
    .. [1] G. Celeux, M. El Anbari, J.-M. Marin, C. P. Robert,
           "Regularization in regression: comparing Bayesian and frequentist
           methods in a poorly informative situation", 2009.

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_sparse_uncorrelated
    >>> X, y = make_sparse_uncorrelated(random_state=0)
    >>> X.shape
    (100, 10)
    >>> y.shape
    (100,)
    """
    generator = check_random_state(random_state)

    X = generator.normal(loc=0, scale=1, size=(n_samples, n_features))
    y = generator.normal(
        loc=(X[:, 0] + 2 * X[:, 1] - 2 * X[:, 2] - 1.5 * X[:, 3]),
        scale=np.ones(n_samples),
    )

    return X, y


@validate_params(
    {
        "n_dim": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_spd_matrix(n_dim, *, random_state=None):
    """Generate a random symmetric, positive-definite matrix.

    Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    n_dim : int
        The matrix dimension.

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset creation. Pass an int
        for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    Returns
    -------
    X : ndarray of shape (n_dim, n_dim)
        The random symmetric, positive-definite matrix.

    See Also
    --------
    make_sparse_spd_matrix: Generate a sparse symmetric definite positive matrix.

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_spd_matrix
    >>> make_spd_matrix(n_dim=2, random_state=42)
    array([[2.093, 0.346],
           [0.346, 0.218]])
    """
    generator = check_random_state(random_state)

    A = generator.uniform(size=(n_dim, n_dim))
    U, _, Vt = linalg.svd(np.dot(A.T, A), check_finite=False)
    X = np.dot(np.dot(U, 1.0 + np.diag(generator.uniform(size=n_dim))), Vt)

    return X


@validate_params(
    {
        "n_dim": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "alpha": [Interval(Real, 0, 1, closed="both")],
        "norm_diag": ["boolean"],
        "smallest_coef": [Interval(Real, 0, 1, closed="both")],
        "largest_coef": [Interval(Real, 0, 1, closed="both")],
        "sparse_format": [
            StrOptions({"bsr", "coo", "csc", "csr", "dia", "dok", "lil"}),
            None,
        ],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_sparse_spd_matrix(
    n_dim=1,
    *,
    alpha=0.95,
    norm_diag=False,
    smallest_coef=0.1,
    largest_coef=0.9,
    sparse_format=None,
    random_state=None,
):
    """Generate a sparse symmetric definite positive matrix.

    Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    n_dim : int, default=1
        The size of the random matrix to generate.

        .. versionchanged:: 1.4
            Renamed from ``dim`` to ``n_dim``.

    alpha : float, default=0.95
        The probability that a coefficient is zero (see notes). Larger values
        enforce more sparsity. The value should be in the range 0 and 1.

    norm_diag : bool, default=False
        Whether to normalize the output matrix to make the leading diagonal
        elements all 1.

    smallest_coef : float, default=0.1
        The value of the smallest coefficient between 0 and 1.

    largest_coef : float, default=0.9
        The value of the largest coefficient between 0 and 1.

    sparse_format : str, default=None
        String representing the output sparse format, such as 'csc', 'csr', etc.
        If ``None``, return a dense numpy ndarray.

        .. versionadded:: 1.4

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset creation. Pass an int
        for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    Returns
    -------
    prec : ndarray or sparse matrix of shape (dim, dim)
        The generated matrix. If ``sparse_format=None``, this would be an ndarray.
        Otherwise, this will be a sparse matrix of the specified format.

    See Also
    --------
    make_spd_matrix : Generate a random symmetric, positive-definite matrix.

    Notes
    -----
    The sparsity is actually imposed on the cholesky factor of the matrix.
    Thus alpha does not translate directly into the filling fraction of
    the matrix itself.

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_sparse_spd_matrix
    >>> make_sparse_spd_matrix(n_dim=4, norm_diag=False, random_state=42)
    array([[1., 0., 0., 0.],
           [0., 1., 0., 0.],
           [0., 0., 1., 0.],
           [0., 0., 0., 1.]])
    """
    random_state = check_random_state(random_state)

    chol = -sp.eye(n_dim)
    aux = sp.random(
        m=n_dim,
        n=n_dim,
        density=1 - alpha,
        data_rvs=lambda x: random_state.uniform(
            low=smallest_coef, high=largest_coef, size=x
        ),
        random_state=random_state,
    )
    # We need to avoid "coo" format because it does not support slicing
    aux = sp.tril(aux, k=-1, format="csc")

    # Permute the lines: we don't want to have asymmetries in the final
    # SPD matrix
    permutation = random_state.permutation(n_dim)
    aux = aux[permutation].T[permutation]
    chol += aux
    prec = chol.T @ chol

    if norm_diag:
        # Form the diagonal vector into a row matrix
        d = sp.diags(1.0 / np.sqrt(prec.diagonal()))
        prec = d @ prec @ d

    if sparse_format is None:
        return prec.toarray()
    else:
        return prec.asformat(sparse_format)


@validate_params(
    {
        "n_samples": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "noise": [Interval(Real, 0, None, closed="left")],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
        "hole": ["boolean"],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_swiss_roll(n_samples=100, *, noise=0.0, random_state=None, hole=False):
    """Generate a swiss roll dataset.

    Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Adapted with permission from Stephen Marsland's code [1].

    Parameters
    ----------
    n_samples : int, default=100
        The number of sample points on the Swiss Roll.

    noise : float, default=0.0
        The standard deviation of the gaussian noise.

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset creation. Pass an int
        for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    hole : bool, default=False
        If True generates the swiss roll with hole dataset.

    Returns
    -------
    X : ndarray of shape (n_samples, 3)
        The points.

    t : ndarray of shape (n_samples,)
        The univariate position of the sample according to the main dimension
        of the points in the manifold.

    Notes
    -----
    The algorithm is from Marsland [1].

    References
    ----------
    .. [1] S. Marsland, "Machine Learning: An Algorithmic Perspective", 2nd edition,
           Chapter 6, 2014.
           https://homepages.ecs.vuw.ac.nz/~marslast/Code/Ch6/lle.py

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_swiss_roll
    >>> X, t = make_swiss_roll(noise=0.05, random_state=0)
    >>> X.shape
    (100, 3)
    >>> t.shape
    (100,)
    """
    generator = check_random_state(random_state)

    if not hole:
        t = 1.5 * np.pi * (1 + 2 * generator.uniform(size=n_samples))
        y = 21 * generator.uniform(size=n_samples)
    else:
        corners = np.array(
            [[np.pi * (1.5 + i), j * 7] for i in range(3) for j in range(3)]
        )
        corners = np.delete(corners, 4, axis=0)
        corner_index = generator.choice(8, n_samples)
        parameters = generator.uniform(size=(2, n_samples)) * np.array([[np.pi], [7]])
        t, y = corners[corner_index].T + parameters

    x = t * np.cos(t)
    z = t * np.sin(t)

    X = np.vstack((x, y, z))
    X += noise * generator.standard_normal(size=(3, n_samples))
    X = X.T
    t = np.squeeze(t)

    return X, t


@validate_params(
    {
        "n_samples": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "noise": [Interval(Real, 0, None, closed="left")],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_s_curve(n_samples=100, *, noise=0.0, random_state=None):
    """Generate an S curve dataset.

    Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    n_samples : int, default=100
        The number of sample points on the S curve.

    noise : float, default=0.0
        The standard deviation of the gaussian noise.

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset creation. Pass an int
        for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    Returns
    -------
    X : ndarray of shape (n_samples, 3)
        The points.

    t : ndarray of shape (n_samples,)
        The univariate position of the sample according
        to the main dimension of the points in the manifold.

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_s_curve
    >>> X, t = make_s_curve(noise=0.05, random_state=0)
    >>> X.shape
    (100, 3)
    >>> t.shape
    (100,)
    """
    generator = check_random_state(random_state)

    t = 3 * np.pi * (generator.uniform(size=(1, n_samples)) - 0.5)
    X = np.empty(shape=(n_samples, 3), dtype=np.float64)
    X[:, 0] = np.sin(t)
    X[:, 1] = 2.0 * generator.uniform(size=n_samples)
    X[:, 2] = np.sign(t) * (np.cos(t) - 1)
    X += noise * generator.standard_normal(size=(3, n_samples)).T
    t = np.squeeze(t)

    return X, t


@validate_params(
    {
        "mean": ["array-like", None],
        "cov": [Interval(Real, 0, None, closed="left")],
        "n_samples": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "n_features": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "n_classes": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "shuffle": ["boolean"],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_gaussian_quantiles(
    *,
    mean=None,
    cov=1.0,
    n_samples=100,
    n_features=2,
    n_classes=3,
    shuffle=True,
    random_state=None,
):
    r"""Generate isotropic Gaussian and label samples by quantile.

    This classification dataset is constructed by taking a multi-dimensional
    standard normal distribution and defining classes separated by nested
    concentric multi-dimensional spheres such that roughly equal numbers of
    samples are in each class (quantiles of the :math:`\chi^2` distribution).

    Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    mean : array-like of shape (n_features,), default=None
        The mean of the multi-dimensional normal distribution.
        If None then use the origin (0, 0, ...).

    cov : float, default=1.0
        The covariance matrix will be this value times the unit matrix. This
        dataset only produces symmetric normal distributions.

    n_samples : int, default=100
        The total number of points equally divided among classes.

    n_features : int, default=2
        The number of features for each sample.

    n_classes : int, default=3
        The number of classes.

    shuffle : bool, default=True
        Shuffle the samples.

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset creation. Pass an int
        for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    Returns
    -------
    X : ndarray of shape (n_samples, n_features)
        The generated samples.

    y : ndarray of shape (n_samples,)
        The integer labels for quantile membership of each sample.

    Notes
    -----
    The dataset is from Zhu et al [1].

    References
    ----------
    .. [1] J. Zhu, H. Zou, S. Rosset, T. Hastie, "Multi-class AdaBoost", 2009.

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_gaussian_quantiles
    >>> X, y = make_gaussian_quantiles(random_state=42)
    >>> X.shape
    (100, 2)
    >>> y.shape
    (100,)
    >>> list(y[:5])
    [np.int64(2), np.int64(0), np.int64(1), np.int64(0), np.int64(2)]
    """
    if n_samples < n_classes:
        raise ValueError("n_samples must be at least n_classes")

    generator = check_random_state(random_state)

    if mean is None:
        mean = np.zeros(n_features)
    else:
        mean = np.array(mean)

    # Build multivariate normal distribution
    X = generator.multivariate_normal(mean, cov * np.identity(n_features), (n_samples,))

    # Sort by distance from origin
    idx = np.argsort(np.sum((X - mean[np.newaxis, :]) ** 2, axis=1))
    X = X[idx, :]

    # Label by quantile
    step = n_samples // n_classes

    y = np.hstack(
        [
            np.repeat(np.arange(n_classes), step),
            np.repeat(n_classes - 1, n_samples - step * n_classes),
        ]
    )

    if shuffle:
        X, y = util_shuffle(X, y, random_state=generator)

    return X, y


def _shuffle(data, random_state=None):
    generator = check_random_state(random_state)
    n_rows, n_cols = data.shape
    row_idx = generator.permutation(n_rows)
    col_idx = generator.permutation(n_cols)
    result = data[row_idx][:, col_idx]
    return result, row_idx, col_idx


@validate_params(
    {
        "shape": [tuple],
        "n_clusters": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left")],
        "noise": [Interval(Real, 0, None, closed="left")],
        "minval": [Interval(Real, None, None, closed="neither")],
        "maxval": [Interval(Real, None, None, closed="neither")],
        "shuffle": ["boolean"],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_biclusters(
    shape,
    n_clusters,
    *,
    noise=0.0,
    minval=10,
    maxval=100,
    shuffle=True,
    random_state=None,
):
    """Generate a constant block diagonal structure array for biclustering.

    Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    shape : tuple of shape (n_rows, n_cols)
        The shape of the result.

    n_clusters : int
        The number of biclusters.

    noise : float, default=0.0
        The standard deviation of the gaussian noise.

    minval : float, default=10
        Minimum value of a bicluster.

    maxval : float, default=100
        Maximum value of a bicluster.

    shuffle : bool, default=True
        Shuffle the samples.

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset creation. Pass an int
        for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    Returns
    -------
    X : ndarray of shape `shape`
        The generated array.

    rows : ndarray of shape (n_clusters, X.shape[0])
        The indicators for cluster membership of each row.

    cols : ndarray of shape (n_clusters, X.shape[1])
        The indicators for cluster membership of each column.

    See Also
    --------
    make_checkerboard: Generate an array with block checkerboard structure for
        biclustering.

    References
    ----------

    .. [1] Dhillon, I. S. (2001, August). Co-clustering documents and
        words using bipartite spectral graph partitioning. In Proceedings
        of the seventh ACM SIGKDD international conference on Knowledge
        discovery and data mining (pp. 269-274). ACM.

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_biclusters
    >>> data, rows, cols = make_biclusters(
    ...     shape=(10, 20), n_clusters=2, random_state=42
    ... )
    >>> data.shape
    (10, 20)
    >>> rows.shape
    (2, 10)
    >>> cols.shape
    (2, 20)
    """
    generator = check_random_state(random_state)
    n_rows, n_cols = shape
    consts = generator.uniform(minval, maxval, n_clusters)

    # row and column clusters of approximately equal sizes
    row_sizes = generator.multinomial(n_rows, np.repeat(1.0 / n_clusters, n_clusters))
    col_sizes = generator.multinomial(n_cols, np.repeat(1.0 / n_clusters, n_clusters))

    row_labels = np.hstack(
        [np.repeat(val, rep) for val, rep in zip(range(n_clusters), row_sizes)]
    )
    col_labels = np.hstack(
        [np.repeat(val, rep) for val, rep in zip(range(n_clusters), col_sizes)]
    )

    result = np.zeros(shape, dtype=np.float64)
    for i in range(n_clusters):
        selector = np.outer(row_labels == i, col_labels == i)
        result[selector] += consts[i]

    if noise > 0:
        result += generator.normal(scale=noise, size=result.shape)

    if shuffle:
        result, row_idx, col_idx = _shuffle(result, random_state)
        row_labels = row_labels[row_idx]
        col_labels = col_labels[col_idx]

    rows = np.vstack([row_labels == c for c in range(n_clusters)])
    cols = np.vstack([col_labels == c for c in range(n_clusters)])

    return result, rows, cols


@validate_params(
    {
        "shape": [tuple],
        "n_clusters": [Interval(Integral, 1, None, closed="left"), "array-like"],
        "noise": [Interval(Real, 0, None, closed="left")],
        "minval": [Interval(Real, None, None, closed="neither")],
        "maxval": [Interval(Real, None, None, closed="neither")],
        "shuffle": ["boolean"],
        "random_state": ["random_state"],
    },
    prefer_skip_nested_validation=True,
)
def make_checkerboard(
    shape,
    n_clusters,
    *,
    noise=0.0,
    minval=10,
    maxval=100,
    shuffle=True,
    random_state=None,
):
    """Generate an array with block checkerboard structure for biclustering.

    Read more in the :ref:`User Guide <sample_generators>`.

    Parameters
    ----------
    shape : tuple of shape (n_rows, n_cols)
        The shape of the result.

    n_clusters : int or array-like or shape (n_row_clusters, n_column_clusters)
        The number of row and column clusters.

    noise : float, default=0.0
        The standard deviation of the gaussian noise.

    minval : float, default=10
        Minimum value of a bicluster.

    maxval : float, default=100
        Maximum value of a bicluster.

    shuffle : bool, default=True
        Shuffle the samples.

    random_state : int, RandomState instance or None, default=None
        Determines random number generation for dataset creation. Pass an int
        for reproducible output across multiple function calls.
        See :term:`Glossary <random_state>`.

    Returns
    -------
    X : ndarray of shape `shape`
        The generated array.

    rows : ndarray of shape (n_clusters, X.shape[0])
        The indicators for cluster membership of each row.

    cols : ndarray of shape (n_clusters, X.shape[1])
        The indicators for cluster membership of each column.

    See Also
    --------
    make_biclusters : Generate an array with constant block diagonal structure
        for biclustering.

    References
    ----------
    .. [1] Kluger, Y., Basri, R., Chang, J. T., & Gerstein, M. (2003).
        Spectral biclustering of microarray data: coclustering genes
        and conditions. Genome research, 13(4), 703-716.

    Examples
    --------
    >>> from xlearn.datasets import make_checkerboard
    >>> data, rows, columns = make_checkerboard(shape=(300, 300), n_clusters=10,
    ...                                         random_state=42)
    >>> data.shape
    (300, 300)
    >>> rows.shape
    (100, 300)
    >>> columns.shape
    (100, 300)
    >>> print(rows[0][:5], columns[0][:5])
    [False False False  True False] [False False False False False]
    """
    generator = check_random_state(random_state)

    if hasattr(n_clusters, "__len__"):
        n_row_clusters, n_col_clusters = n_clusters
    else:
        n_row_clusters = n_col_clusters = n_clusters

    # row and column clusters of approximately equal sizes
    n_rows, n_cols = shape
    row_sizes = generator.multinomial(
        n_rows, np.repeat(1.0 / n_row_clusters, n_row_clusters)
    )
    col_sizes = generator.multinomial(
        n_cols, np.repeat(1.0 / n_col_clusters, n_col_clusters)
    )

    row_labels = np.hstack(
        [np.repeat(val, rep) for val, rep in zip(range(n_row_clusters), row_sizes)]
    )
    col_labels = np.hstack(
        [np.repeat(val, rep) for val, rep in zip(range(n_col_clusters), col_sizes)]
    )

    result = np.zeros(shape, dtype=np.float64)
    for i in range(n_row_clusters):
        for j in range(n_col_clusters):
            selector = np.outer(row_labels == i, col_labels == j)
            result[selector] += generator.uniform(minval, maxval)

    if noise > 0:
        result += generator.normal(scale=noise, size=result.shape)

    if shuffle:
        result, row_idx, col_idx = _shuffle(result, random_state)
        row_labels = row_labels[row_idx]
        col_labels = col_labels[col_idx]

    rows = np.vstack(
        [
            row_labels == label
            for label in range(n_row_clusters)
            for _ in range(n_col_clusters)
        ]
    )
    cols = np.vstack(
        [
            col_labels == label
            for _ in range(n_row_clusters)
            for label in range(n_col_clusters)
        ]
    )

    return result, rows, cols
