{{short description|Polish-French physicist and chemist (1867-1934)}}
{{about|the Polish-French physicist}}
{{pp|small=yes}}
{{sprotected2}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2016}}{{Use British English|date=August 2012}}
{{Slavic name|Skłodowska|Sklodowska}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name              = Marie Curie
| image             = file:Mariecurie7-Colorized.jpg
| birth_name        = Maria Salomea Skłodowska
| birth_date        = {{birth date|1867|11|7|df=y}}
| birth_place       = [[Warsaw]], [[Congress Poland]], [[Russian Empire]]<ref name="nobelprize" />
| death_date        = {{death date and age|df=yes|1934|7|4|1867|11|7}}
| death_place       = [[Passy, Haute-Savoie]], France
| death_cause       = [[Aplastic anemia]] from exposure to radiation
| citizenship       = {{plainlist|
* Poland (by birth)
* France (by marriage)
}}
| alma_mater        = {{plainlist|
* University of Paris
* [[ESPCI]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espci.fr/en/espci-paris/prestige-82/|title=ESPCI Paris : Prestige|website=www.espci.fr|accessdate=26 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170926100024/https://www.espci.fr/en/espci-paris/prestige-82/|archive-date=26 September 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
}}
| thesis_title      = Recherches sur les substances radioactives (Research on Radioactive Substances)
| doctoral_advisor  = [[Gabriel Lippmann]]
| doctoral_students = {{hlist|[[André-Louis Debierne]]|[[Óscar Moreno]]|[[Marguerite Perey]]|[[Émile Henriot (chemist)|Émile Henriot]]}}
| known_for         = {{plainlist|
* [[Radioactivity]]
* [[Polonium]]
* [[Radium]]}}
| awards            = {{plainlist|
* [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] (1903)
* [[Davy Medal]] (1903)
* [[Matteucci Medal]] (1904)
* [[Elliott Cresson Medal]] (1909)
* [[Albert Medal (Royal Society of Arts)|Albert Medal]] (1910)
* [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] (1911)
* [[Willard Gibbs Award]] (1921)
* [[Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh]] (1931)
  }}
| signature         = Marie Curie Skłodowska Signature Polish.svg
| footnotes         = She is the only person to win a [[Nobel Prize]] in two sciences.
| spouse            = {{marriage|[[Pierre Curie]]|1895|1906|end=died}}
| children          = {{plainlist|
* [[Irène Joliot-Curie]] (1897{{ndash}}1956)
* [[Ève Curie]] (1904{{ndash}}2007)
}}
| field             = [[Physics]], [[chemistry]]
| work_institutions = * [[University of Paris]]
** [[Curie Institute (Paris)|Institut du Radium]]
* [[École Normale Supérieure]]
* [[French Academy of Medicine]]
* [[International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation]]
}}
[[File:Warszawa, ul. Freta 16 20170516 002.jpg|thumb|260px|[[Maria Skłodowska-Curie Museum|Birthplace]], ''ulica Freta'' 16, [[Warsaw]]]]

'''Marie Skłodowska Curie''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|j|ʊər|i}} {{respell|KEWR|ee}};<ref>{{cite book|last=Jones|first=Daniel|authorlink=Daniel Jones (phonetician)|editor1-last=Roach|editor1-first=Peter|editor2-last=Setter|editor2-first=Jane|editor2-link=Jane Setter|editor3-last=Esling|editor3-first=John|year=2011|title=Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary|edition=18th|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-15253-2|title-link=Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary}}</ref> {{IPA-fr|kyʁi|lang}}; {{IPA-pl|kʲiˈri|lang}}), born '''Maria Salomea Skłodowska''' ({{IPA-pl|ˈmarja salɔˈmɛa skwɔˈdɔfska|lang}}; 7 November 1867 – 4 July 1934), was a [[Polish minority in France|Polish and naturalized-French]]<!--Note: Per 1 November 2013 talk-page Request for Comment consensus, please do not change the nationality description without consulting the discussion page. This formulation ("Polish and naturalized-French") has been found to be the best way to reflect Curie's connections to both of these countries.--> [[physicist]] and [[chemist]] who conducted pioneering research on [[radioactivity]].

As part of the [[Nobel Prize#Family laureates|Curie family legacy]] of five Nobel Prizes, she was the [[List of female Nobel laureates|first woman]] to win a [[Nobel Prize]], the first person and the only woman to [[Nobel Prize#Multiple laureates|win the Nobel Prize twice]], and the only person to win the Nobel Prize in two scientific fields.  She was also the first woman to become a professor at the [[University of Paris]].<ref name="Madame Curie's Passion"/>

She was born in [[Warsaw]], in what was then the [[Congress Poland|Kingdom of Poland]], part of the [[Russian Empire]]. She studied at Warsaw's clandestine [[Flying University]] and began her practical scientific training in Warsaw. In 1891, aged 24, she followed her elder sister [[Bronisława Dłuska|Bronisława]] to study in Paris, where she earned her higher degrees and conducted her subsequent scientific work.

She shared the 1903 [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] with her husband [[Pierre Curie]] and physicist [[Henri Becquerel]], for their pioneering work developing the theory of "radioactivity" (a term she coined).<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www2.lbl.gov/abc/wallchart/chapters/03/4.html|title = The Discovery of Radioactivity|date = |accessdate = |website = [[Berkeley Lab]]|publisher = |last = |first = |quote = The term radioactivity was actually coined by Marie Curie […].|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151101075508/http://www2.lbl.gov/abc/wallchart/chapters/03/4.html|archive-date = 1 November 2015|url-status = live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url = https://www.nobelprize.org/educational/nobelprize_info/curie-edu.html|title = Marie Curie and the radioactivity, The 1903 Nobel Prize in Physics|date = |accessdate = |website = nobelprize.org|publisher = |last = |first = |quote = Marie called this radiation radioactivity—"radio" means radiation.|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180730115737/https://www.nobelprize.org/educational/nobelprize_info/curie-edu.html|archive-date = 30 July 2018|url-status = live}}</ref> Using techniques she invented for isolating radioactive [[isotope]]s, she won the 1911 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] for the discovery of two elements, [[polonium]] and [[radium]].

Under her direction, the world's first studies were conducted into the treatment of [[neoplasm]]s using radioactive isotopes. She founded the [[Curie Institute (Paris)|Curie Institutes in Paris]] and [[Curie Institute (Warsaw)|in Warsaw]], which remain major centres of medical research today. During [[World War I]] she developed mobile radiography units to provide [[X-ray]] services to [[field hospital]]s.

While a French citizen, Marie Skłodowska Curie, who used both surnames,<ref>See her signature, "M. Skłodowska Curie", in the infobox.</ref><ref>Her 1911 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] was granted to "Marie Sklodowska Curie" [[:File:Marie Skłodowska-Curie's Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1911.jpg]].</ref> never lost her sense of [[national identity|Polish identity]]. She taught her daughters the [[Polish language]] and took them on visits to Poland.<ref name="goldsmith"/> She named the first [[chemical element]] she discovered ''polonium'', after her native country.{{efn|Poland had been partitioned in the 18th century among Russia, Prussia, and Austria, and it was Maria Skłodowska Curie's hope that naming the element after her native country would bring world attention to Poland's lack of independence as a sovereign state. [[Polonium]] may have been the first chemical element named to highlight a political question.<ref name="independence"/>}}

Marie Curie died in 1934, aged 66, at a [[sanatorium]] in [[Sancellemoz]] ([[Haute-Savoie]]), France, of [[aplastic anemia|aplastic anaemia]] from exposure to radiation in the course of her scientific research and in the course of her radiological work at field hospitals during [[World War I]].<ref>{{YouTube|Zz7Q-zZ4onc|"The Genius of Marie Curie: The Woman Who Lit Up the World"}} (a 2013 [[BBC]] documentary)</ref> In 1995, she became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the [[Panthéon]] in Paris.<ref name="nytimes"/>

==Life==
===Early years===
[[File:Sklodowski Family Wladyslaw and his daughters Maria Bronislawa Helena.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Władysław Skłodowski, daughters ''(from left)'' Maria, [[Bronisława Dłuska|Bronisława]], {{ill|Helena Skłodowska-Szaley|pl|lt=Helena}}, 1890]]
Maria Skłodowska was born in [[Warsaw]], in [[Congress Poland]] in the [[Russian Empire]], on 7 November 1867, the fifth and youngest child of well-known teachers Bronisława, ''née'' Boguska, and Władysław Skłodowski.<ref name="psb111" /> The elder siblings of Maria ([[nickname]]d ''Mania'') were Zofia (born 1862, nicknamed ''Zosia''), {{ill|Józef Skłodowski|pl|Józef Skłodowski (lekarz)|lt=Józef}} (born 1863, nicknamed ''Józio''), [[Bronisława Dłuska|Bronisława]] (born 1865, nicknamed ''Bronia'') and [[Helena Skłodowska-Szalay|Helena]] (born 1866, nicknamed ''Hela'').<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)"/><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Age of Radiance: The Epic Rise and Dramatic Fall of the Atomic Era|last=Nelson|first=Craig|publisher=Simon & Schuster|year=2014|isbn=978-1-4516-6045-6|page=18|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vTcGAQAAQBAJ&lpg=PA18&dq=bronislawa%20bronya&pg=PA18|access-date=24 January 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170423082643/https://books.google.com/books?id=vTcGAQAAQBAJ&lpg=PA18&dq=bronislawa%20bronya&pg=PA18|archive-date=23 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

On both the paternal and maternal sides, the family had lost their property and fortunes through patriotic involvements in Polish national uprisings aimed at restoring Poland's independence (the most recent had been the [[January Uprising]] of 1863–65).<ref name="gwiazdapolarna"/> This condemned the subsequent generation, including Maria and her elder siblings, to a difficult struggle to get ahead in life.<ref name="gwiazdapolarna"/> Maria's paternal grandfather, {{ill|Józef Skłodowski|pl}}, had been principal of the [[Lublin]] primary school attended by [[Bolesław Prus#Early years|Bolesław Prus]],<ref>[[:pl:Monika Piątkowska|Monika Piątkowska]], ''Prus:  Śledztwo biograficzne'' (Prus:  A Biographical Investigation), [[Kraków]], [[Wydawnictwo Znak]], 2017, {{ISBN|978-83-240-4543-3}}, pp. 49–50.</ref> who became a leading figure in Polish literature.<ref name="undoubtedly"/>

Władysław Skłodowski taught mathematics and physics, subjects that Maria was to pursue, and was also director of two Warsaw ''[[gymnasium (school)|gymnasia]]'' (secondary schools) for boys. After Russian authorities eliminated laboratory instruction from the Polish schools, he brought much of the laboratory equipment home and instructed his children in its use.<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)"/> He was eventually fired by his Russian supervisors for pro-Polish sentiments and forced to take lower-paying posts; the family also lost money on a bad investment and eventually chose to supplement their income by lodging boys in the house.<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)" /> Maria's mother Bronisława operated a prestigious Warsaw boarding school for girls; she resigned from the position after Maria was born.<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)" /> She died of [[tuberculosis]] in May 1878, when Maria was ten years old.<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)" /> Less than three years earlier, Maria's oldest sibling, Zofia, had died of [[typhus]] contracted from a boarder.<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)" /> Maria's father was an [[atheist]]; her mother a devout Catholic.<ref name="Barker2011" /> The deaths of Maria's mother and sister caused her to give up Catholicism and become [[agnostic]].<ref name="Marie Curie" />
[[File:Maria Sklodowska et sa sœur Bronislawa en 1886.jpg|thumb|left|uprignt|Maria (left), sister [[Bronisława Dłuska|Bronisława]], ca. 1886]]
When she was ten years old, Maria began attending the boarding school of J. Sikorska; next, she attended a ''[[gymnasium (school)|gymnasium]]'' for girls, from which she graduated on 12 June 1883 with a gold medal.<ref name="psb111" /> After a collapse, possibly due to [[Depression (mood)|depression]],<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)" /> she spent the following year in the countryside with relatives of her father, and the next year with her father in Warsaw, where she did some tutoring.<ref name="psb111" /> Unable to enroll in a regular institution of higher education because she was a woman, she and her sister Bronisława became involved with the clandestine [[Flying University]] (sometimes translated as ''Floating University''), a Polish patriotic institution of higher learning that admitted women students.<ref name="psb111" /><ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)" />
[[File:Krakowskie Przedmiescie, Warsaw.JPG|thumb|upright|''[[Krakowskie Przedmiescie]]'' 66, [[Warsaw]]: here Maria did her first scientific work, 1890-91.]]
Maria made an agreement with her sister, Bronisława, that she would give her financial assistance during Bronisława's medical studies in Paris, in exchange for similar assistance two years later.<ref name="psb111"/><ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1"/> In connection with this, Maria took a position as [[governess]]: first as a home tutor in Warsaw; then for two years as a governess in [[Szczuki, Masovian Voivodeship|Szczuki]] with a landed family, the Żorawskis, who were relatives of her father.<ref name="psb111"/><ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1"/> While working for the latter family, she fell in love with their son, [[Kazimierz Żorawski]], a future eminent mathematician.<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1"/> His parents rejected the idea of his marrying the penniless relative, and Kazimierz was unable to oppose them.<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1"/> Maria's loss of the relationship with Żorawski was tragic for both. He soon earned a doctorate and pursued an academic career as a mathematician, becoming a professor and [[Rector (academia)|rector]] of [[Jagiellonian University|Kraków University]]. Still, as an old man and a mathematics professor at the [[Warsaw Polytechnic]], he would sit contemplatively before the statue of Maria Skłodowska that had been erected in 1935 before the [[Curie Institute, Warsaw|Radium Institute]], which she had founded in 1932.<ref name="gwiazdapolarna"/><ref name="robert2"/>

At the beginning of 1890, Bronisława—who a few months earlier had married [[Kazimierz Dłuski]], a Polish physician and social and political activist—invited Maria to join them in Paris. Maria declined because she could not afford the university tuition; it would take her a year and a half longer to gather the necessary funds.<ref name="psb111"/> She was helped by her father, who was able to secure a more lucrative position again.<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1"/> All that time she continued to [[Autodidacticism|educate herself]], reading books, exchanging letters, and being tutored herself.<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1"/> In early 1889 she returned home to her father in Warsaw.<ref name="psb111"/> She continued working as a governess and remained there till late 1891.<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1"/> She tutored, studied at the Flying University, and began her practical scientific training (1890–91) in a chemical laboratory at the [[Museum of Industry and Agriculture]] at ''[[Krakowskie Przedmieście]]'' 66, near [[Warsaw Old Town|Warsaw's Old Town]].<ref name="psb111"/><ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)"/><ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1"/> The laboratory was run by her cousin [[Józef Boguski]], who had been an assistant in [[Saint Petersburg]] to the Russian chemist [[Dmitri Mendeleev]].<ref name="psb111"/><ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1"/><ref name="teachers"/>

===Life in Paris===
In late 1891, she left Poland for France.<ref name="psb112"/> In Paris, Maria (or Marie, as she would be known in France) briefly found shelter with her sister and brother-in-law before renting a [[garret]] closer to the university, in the [[Latin Quarter]], and proceeding with her studies of physics, chemistry, and mathematics at the [[University of Paris]], where she enrolled in late 1891.<ref name="robert3"/><ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris"/> She subsisted on her meagre resources, keeping herself warm during cold winters by wearing all the clothes she had. She focused so hard on her studies that she sometimes forgot to eat.<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris"/> Skłodowska studied during the day and tutored evenings, barely earning her keep. In 1893, she was awarded a degree in physics and began work in an industrial laboratory of [[Gabriel Lippmann]]. Meanwhile, she continued studying at the University of Paris and with the aid of a fellowship she was able to earn a second degree in 1894.<ref name="psb111"/><ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris"/>{{efn|Sources vary concerning the field of her second degree. [[Tadeusz Estreicher]], in the 1938 ''[[Polski słownik biograficzny]]'' entry, writes that, while many sources state she earned a degree in mathematics, this is incorrect, and that her second degree was in chemistry.<ref name="psb111"/>}}

Skłodowska had begun her scientific career in Paris with an investigation of the magnetic properties of various steels, commissioned by the [[Society for the Encouragement of National Industry]].<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris" /> That same year [[Pierre Curie]] entered her life; it was their mutual interest in natural sciences that drew them together.<ref name="Williams331" /> Pierre Curie was an instructor at [[The City of Paris Industrial Physics and Chemistry Higher Educational Institution]] (ESPCI Paris).<ref name="psb111" /> They were introduced by Polish physicist [[Józef Wierusz-Kowalski]], who had learned that she was looking for a larger laboratory space, something that Wierusz-Kowalski thought Pierre had access to.<ref name="psb111" /><ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris" /> Though Curie did not have a large laboratory, he was able to find some space for Skłodowska where she was able to begin work.<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris" />

Their mutual passion for science brought them increasingly closer, and they began to develop feelings for one another.<ref name="psb111" /><ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris" /> Eventually, Pierre proposed marriage, but at first Skłodowska did not accept as she was still planning to go back to her native country. Curie, however, declared that he was ready to move with her to Poland, even if it meant being reduced to teaching French.<ref name="psb111"/> Meanwhile, for the 1894 summer break, Skłodowska returned to Warsaw, where she visited her family.<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris"/> She was still labouring under the illusion that she would be able to work in her chosen field in Poland, but she was denied a place at [[Jagiellonian University|Kraków University]] because of [[sexism in academia]].<ref name="gwiazdapolarna"/> A letter from Pierre convinced her to return to Paris to pursue a [[Ph.D]].<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris"/> At Skłodowska's insistence, Curie had written up his research on [[magnetism]] and received his own doctorate in March 1895; he was also promoted to professor at the School.<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris"/> A contemporary quip would call Skłodowska "Pierre's biggest discovery."<ref name="gwiazdapolarna"/>

On 26 July 1895, they were married in [[Sceaux, Hauts-de-Seine|Sceaux]];<ref>{{cite web|url=http://janinetissot.fdaf.org/jt_curie_marie.htm|title=Marie Curie|author=les Actus DN|accessdate=24 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102102143/http://janinetissot.fdaf.org/jt_curie_marie.htm|archive-date=2 November 2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> neither wanted a religious service.<ref name="psb111"/><ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris"/> Curie's dark blue outfit, worn instead of a bridal gown, would serve her for many years as a laboratory outfit.<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris"/> They shared two pastimes: long bicycle trips and journeys abroad, which brought them even closer. In Pierre, Marie had found a new love, a partner, and a scientific collaborator on whom she could depend.<ref name="gwiazdapolarna"/>

=== New elements ===
[[File:Pierre and Marie Curie.jpg|thumb|[[Pierre Curie|Pierre]] and Marie Curie in the laboratory, {{circa}} 1904]]
In 1895, [[Wilhelm Roentgen]] discovered the existence of [[X-ray]]s, though the mechanism behind their production was not yet understood.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity"/> In 1896, [[Henri Becquerel]] discovered that [[uranium]] salts emitted rays that resembled X-rays in their penetrating power.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity"/> He demonstrated that this radiation, unlike [[phosphorescence]], did not depend on an external source of energy but seemed to arise spontaneously from uranium itself. Influenced by these two important discoveries, Curie decided to look into uranium rays as a possible field of research for a thesis.<ref name="psb111"/><ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity"/>

She used an innovative technique to investigate samples. Fifteen years earlier, her husband and his brother had developed a version of the [[electrometer]], a sensitive device for measuring electric charge.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity"/> Using her husband's electrometer, she discovered that uranium rays caused the air around a sample to conduct electricity. Using this technique, her first result was the finding that the activity of the uranium compounds depended only on the quantity of uranium present.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity"/> She [[hypothesis|hypothesized]] that the radiation was not the outcome of some interaction of [[molecule]]s but must come from the [[atom]] itself.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity"/> This hypothesis was an important step in disproving the assumption that atoms were indivisible.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity"/><ref name="robert4"/>

In 1897, her daughter [[Irène Joliot-Curie|Irène]] was born. To support her family, Curie began teaching at the [[École Normale Supérieure]].<ref name="psb112"/> The Curies did not have a dedicated laboratory; most of their research was carried out in a converted shed next to ESPCI.<ref name="psb112"/> The shed, formerly a medical school dissecting room, was poorly ventilated and not even waterproof.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2"/> They were unaware of the deleterious effects of [[Radioactive contamination|radiation exposure]] attendant on their continued unprotected work with radioactive substances. ESPCI did not sponsor her research, but she would receive subsidies from metallurgical and mining companies and from various organizations and governments.<ref name="psb112"/><ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2"/><ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris 2"/>

Curie's systematic studies included two uranium minerals, [[pitchblende]] and [[torbernite]] (also known as chalcolite).<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2"/> Her electrometer showed that pitchblende was four times as active as uranium itself, and chalcolite twice as active. She concluded that, if her earlier results relating the quantity of uranium to its activity were correct, then these two minerals must contain small quantities of another substance that was far more active than uranium.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2"/><ref name="robert5"/> She began a systematic search for additional substances that emit radiation, and by 1898 she discovered that the element [[thorium]] was also radioactive.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity"/> Pierre Curie was increasingly intrigued by her work. By mid-1898 he was so invested in it that he decided to drop his work on crystals and to join her.<ref name="psb112"/><ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2"/>

{{blockquote|The [research] idea [writes Reid] was her own; no one helped her formulate it, and although she took it to her husband for his opinion she clearly established her ownership of it. She later recorded the fact twice in her biography of her husband to ensure there was no chance whatever of any ambiguity. It [is] likely that already at this early stage of her career [she] realized that... many scientists would find it difficult to believe that a woman could be capable of the original work in which she was involved.<ref name="robert6"/>}}
[[File:Marie Pierre Irene Curie.jpg|thumb|[[Pierre Curie|Pierre]], [[Irène Joliot-Curie|Irène]], & Marie Curie, {{circa}} 1902]]
She was acutely aware of the importance of promptly publishing her discoveries and thus establishing her [[scientific priority|priority]]. Had not Becquerel, two years earlier, presented his discovery to the ''[[Académie des Sciences]]'' the day after he made it, credit for the discovery of radioactivity (and even a Nobel Prize), would instead have gone to [[Silvanus Thompson]]. Curie chose the same rapid means of publication. Her paper, giving a brief and simple account of her work, was presented for her to the ''Académie'' on 12 April 1898 by her former professor, [[Gabriel Lippmann]].<ref name="robert7"/> Even so, just as Thompson had been beaten by Becquerel, so Curie was beaten in the race to tell of her discovery that thorium gives off rays in the same way as uranium; two months earlier, [[Gerhard Carl Schmidt]] had published his own finding in Berlin.<ref name="Robert Reid p. 65"/>

At that time, no one else in the world of physics had noticed what Curie recorded in a sentence of her paper, describing how much greater were the activities of pitchblende and chalcolite than uranium itself: "The fact is very remarkable, and leads to the belief that these minerals may contain an element which is much more active than uranium." She later would recall how she felt "a passionate desire to verify this hypothesis as rapidly as possible."<ref name="Robert Reid p. 65"/> On 14 April 1898, the Curies optimistically weighed out a 100-gram sample of pitchblende and ground it with a pestle and mortar. They did not realize at the time that what they were searching for was present in such minute quantities that they would eventually have to process tonnes of the ore.<ref name="Robert Reid p. 65"/>

In July 1898, Curie and her husband published a joint paper announcing the existence of an element they named "[[polonium]]", in honour of her native Poland, which would for another twenty years remain [[partitions of Poland|partitioned among three empires]] ([[Russian Empire|Russian]], [[Austrian Empire|Austrian]], and [[German Empire|Prussian]]).<ref name="psb111"/> On 26 December 1898, the Curies announced the existence of a second element, which they named "[[radium]]", from the [[Latin]] word for "ray".<ref name="psb112"/><ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2"/><ref name="The Discovery of Radioactivity"/> In the course of their research, they also coined the word "[[radioactivity]]".<ref name="psb111"/>

To prove their discoveries beyond any doubt, the Curies sought to isolate polonium and radium in pure form.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2"/> Pitchblende is a complex mineral; the chemical separation of its constituents was an arduous task. The discovery of polonium had been relatively easy; chemically it resembles the element [[bismuth]], and polonium was the only bismuth-like substance in the ore.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2"/> Radium, however, was more elusive; it is closely related chemically to [[barium]], and pitchblende contains both elements. By 1898 the Curies had obtained traces of radium, but appreciable quantities, uncontaminated with barium, were still beyond reach.<ref name="williams"/> The Curies undertook the arduous task of separating out radium salt by differential [[crystallization]]. From a tonne of pitchblende, one-tenth of a gram of [[radium chloride]] was separated in 1902. In 1910, she isolated pure radium metal.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2"/><ref name="Williams332"/> She never succeeded in isolating polonium, which has a [[half-life]] of only 138 days.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2"/>

Between 1898 and 1902, the Curies published, jointly or separately, a total of 32 scientific papers, including one that announced that, when exposed to [[radium]], diseased, [[tumor|tumour-forming]] cells were destroyed faster than healthy cells.<ref>"Marie Sklodowska Curie", ''[[Encyclopedia of World Biography]]'', 2nd ed., vol. 4, Detroit, Gale, 2004, pp. 339–41. [[Gale Virtual Reference Library]]. Web. 3 June 2013.</ref>
[[File:Pierre Curie (1859-1906) and Marie Sklodowska Curie (1867-1934), c. 1903 (4405627519).jpg|thumb|Pierre and Marie Curie, {{circa}}{{nbsp}}1903]]
In 1900, Curie became the first woman faculty member at the École Normale Supérieure and her husband joined the faculty of the University of Paris.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 3"/><ref name="Quinn1996"/> In 1902 she visited Poland on the occasion of her father's death.<ref name="psb112"/>

In June 1903, supervised by [[Gabriel Lippmann]], Curie was awarded her doctorate from the [[University of Paris]].<ref name="psb112"/><ref name="The discovery of radium in 1898 by Maria Sklodowska-Curie (1867–1934) and Pierre Curie (1859–1906) with commentary on their life and times"/> That month the couple were invited to the [[Royal Institution]] in London to give a speech on radioactivity; being a woman, she was prevented from speaking, and Pierre Curie alone was allowed to.<ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis"/> Meanwhile, a new industry began developing, based on radium.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 3"/> The Curies did not [[patent]] their discovery and benefited little from this increasingly profitable business.<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2"/><ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 3"/>

===Nobel Prizes===
[[File:Marie Curie 1903.jpg|thumb|left|upright|1903 [[Nobel Prize]] portrait]]
[[File:Nobel Pierre et Marie Curie 1.jpg|thumb|right|upright|1903 Nobel Prize diploma]]
In December 1903, the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]] awarded Pierre Curie, Marie Curie, and Henri Becquerel the [[Nobel Prize in Physics]], "in recognition of the extraordinary services they have rendered by their joint researches on the [[ionizing radiation|radiation]] phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel."<ref name="psb112"/> At first the committee had intended to honour only Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel, but a committee member and advocate for women scientists, Swedish mathematician [[Magnus Goesta Mittag-Leffler]], alerted Pierre to the situation, and after his complaint, Marie's name was added to the nomination.<ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis2" /> Marie Curie was the first woman to be awarded a Nobel Prize.<ref name="psb112" />

Curie and her husband declined to go to [[Stockholm]] to receive the prize in person; they were too busy with their work, and Pierre Curie, who disliked public ceremonies, was feeling increasingly ill.<ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis" /><ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis2" /> As Nobel laureates were required to deliver a lecture, the Curies finally undertook the trip in 1905.<ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis2" /> The award money allowed the Curies to hire their first laboratory assistant.<ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis2" /> Following the award of the Nobel Prize, and galvanized by an offer from the [[University of Geneva]], which offered Pierre Curie a position, the University of Paris gave him a professorship and the chair of physics, although the Curies still did not have a proper laboratory.<ref name="psb112"/><ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 3"/><ref name="Quinn1996"/> Upon Pierre Curie's complaint, the University of Paris relented and agreed to furnish a new laboratory, but it would not be ready until 1906.<ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis2"/>

In December 1904, Curie gave birth to their second daughter, [[Ève Curie|Ève]].<ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis2"/> She hired Polish governesses to teach her daughters her native language, and sent or took them on visits to Poland.<ref name="goldsmith"/>

On 19 April 1906, Pierre Curie was killed in a road accident. Walking across the [[Rue Dauphine]] in heavy rain, he was struck by a [[horse-drawn vehicle]] and fell under its wheels, causing his skull to fracture.<ref name="psb112"/><ref name=obit/> Curie was devastated by her husband's death.<ref name="Marie Curie Tr and Ad"/> On 13 May 1906 the physics department of the University of Paris decided to retain the chair that had been created for her late husband and offer it to Marie. She accepted it, hoping to create a world-class laboratory as a tribute to her husband Pierre.<ref name="Marie Curie Tr and Ad"/><ref name="Marie Curie Tr and Ad2"/> She was the first woman to become a professor at the University of Paris.<ref name="psb112"/>

Curie's quest to create a new laboratory did not end with the University of Paris, however. In her later years, she headed the Radium Institute (''Institut du radium'', now [[Curie Institute (Paris)|Curie Institute]], ''Institut Curie''), a radioactivity laboratory created for her by the [[Pasteur Institute]] and the [[University of Paris]].<ref name="Marie Curie Tr and Ad2" /> The initiative for creating the Radium Institute had come in 1909 from [[Pierre Paul Émile Roux]], director of the Pasteur Institute, who had been disappointed that the University of Paris was not giving Curie a proper laboratory and had suggested that she move to the Pasteur Institute.<ref name="psb112"/><ref name="psb113"/> Only then, with the threat of Curie leaving, did the University of Paris relent, and eventually the Curie Pavilion became a joint initiative of the University of Paris and the Pasteur Institute.<ref name="psb113"/>
[[File:1911 Solvay conference.jpg|thumb|right|At First [[Solvay Conference]] (1911), Curie (seated, second from right) confers with [[Henri Poincaré]]; standing, fourth from right, is [[Ernest Rutherford|Rutherford]]; second from right, [[Albert Einstein|Einstein]]; far right, [[Paul Langevin]]]]
In 1910 Curie succeeded in isolating radium; she also defined an international standard for radioactive emissions that was eventually named for her and Pierre: the [[Curie (unit)|curie]].<ref name="Marie Curie Tr and Ad2"/> Nevertheless, in 1911 the [[French Academy of Sciences]] failed, by one<ref name="psb112"/> or two votes,<ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec"/> to elect her to membership in the Academy. Elected instead was [[Édouard Branly]], an inventor who had helped [[Guglielmo Marconi]] develop the [[wireless telegraph]].<ref name="goldsmith9"/> It was only over half a century later, in 1962, that a doctoral student of Curie's, [[Marguerite Perey]], became the first woman elected to membership in the Academy.

Despite Curie's fame as a scientist working for France, the public's attitude tended toward [[xenophobia]]—the same that had led to the [[Dreyfus affair]]—which also fuelled false speculation that Curie was Jewish.<ref name="psb112"/><ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec"/> During the French Academy of Sciences elections, she was vilified by the right-wing press as a foreigner and atheist.<ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec"/> Her daughter later remarked on the French press' hypocrisy in portraying Curie as an unworthy foreigner when she was nominated for a French honour, but portraying her as a French heroine when she received foreign honours such as her Nobel Prizes.<ref name="psb112"/>

In 1911, it was revealed that Curie was involved in a year-long affair with physicist [[Paul Langevin]], a former student of Pierre Curie's,<ref name="robert10"/> a married man who was estranged from his wife.<ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec"/> This resulted in a press scandal that was exploited by her academic opponents. Curie (then in her mid-40s) was five years older than Langevin and was misrepresented in the tabloids as a foreign Jewish home-wrecker.<ref name="goldsmith11"/> When the scandal broke, she was away at a conference in Belgium; on her return, she found an angry mob in front of her house and had to seek refuge, with her daughters, in the home of her friend, [[Camille Marbo]].<ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec"/>
[[File:Marie Skłodowska-Curie's Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1911.jpg|thumb|1911 Nobel Prize diploma]]
International recognition for her work had been growing to new heights, and the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, overcoming opposition prompted by the Langevin scandal, honoured her a second time, with the 1911 [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]].<ref name="gwiazdapolarna"/> This award was "in recognition of her services to the advancement of chemistry by the discovery of the elements radium and polonium, by the isolation of radium and the study of the nature and compounds of this remarkable element."<ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec2"/> She was the first person to win or share two Nobel Prizes, and remains [[Linus Pauling#Nobels|alone with Linus Pauling as Nobel laureates in two fields each]]. A delegation of celebrated Polish men of learning, headed by novelist [[Henryk Sienkiewicz]], encouraged her to return to Poland and continue her research in her native country.<ref name="gwiazdapolarna"/> Curie's second Nobel Prize enabled her to persuade the French government into supporting the Radium Institute, built in 1914, where research was conducted in chemistry, physics, and medicine.<ref name="psb113"/> A month after accepting her 1911 Nobel Prize, she was hospitalised with depression and a kidney ailment. For most of 1912, she avoided public life but did spend time in England with her friend and fellow physicist, [[Hertha Ayrton]]. She returned to her laboratory only in December, after a break of about 14 months.<ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec2"/>

In 1912, the [[Warsaw Scientific Society]] offered her the directorship of a new laboratory in Warsaw but she declined, focusing on the developing Radium Institute to be completed in August 1914, and on a new street named Rue Pierre-Curie.<ref name="psb113"/><ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec2"/> She was appointed Director of the Curie Laboratory in the Radium Institute of the University of Paris, founded in 1914.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1903/marie-curie/biographical/|title=Marie Curie-biographical|last=|first=|date=2014|website=Nobel Prize.org|access-date=16 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180317165237/https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1903/marie-curie-bio.html|archive-date=17 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> She visited Poland in 1913 and was welcomed in Warsaw but the visit was mostly ignored by the Russian authorities. The Institute's development was interrupted by the coming war, as most researchers were drafted into the [[French Army]], and it fully resumed its activities in 1919.<ref name="psb113"/><ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec2"/><ref name="Marie Curie War"/>

===World War I===
[[File:Marie Curie - Mobile X-Ray-Unit.jpg|thumb|Curie in a mobile X-ray vehicle {{circa}} 1915|alt=]]
During World War I, Curie recognised that wounded soldiers were best served if operated upon as soon as possible.<ref name="Coppes-Zantinga, A. R 1998">Coppes-Zantinga, A. R. and Coppes, M. J. (1998), Marie Curie's contributions to radiology during World War I. Med. Pediatr. Oncol., 31: 541–543. {{doi|10.1002/(SICI)1096-911X(199812)31:6<541::AID-MPO19>3.0.CO;2-0}}</ref> She saw a need for field radiological centres near the front lines to assist battlefield surgeons.<ref name="Marie Curie War"/> After a quick study of radiology, anatomy, and automotive mechanics she procured X-ray equipment, vehicles, auxiliary generators, and developed mobile [[radiography]] units, which came to be popularly known as ''petites Curies'' ("Little Curies").<ref name="Marie Curie War"/> She became the director of the [[Red Cross]] Radiology Service and set up France's first military radiology centre, operational by late 1914.<ref name="Marie Curie War"/> Assisted at first by a military doctor and her 17-year-old daughter [[Irène Joliot-Curie|Irène]], Curie directed the installation of 20 mobile radiological vehicles and another 200 radiological units at field hospitals in the first year of the war.<ref name="psb113"/><ref name="Marie Curie War"/> Later, she began training other women as aides.<ref name="Marie Curie War2"/>

In 1915, Curie produced hollow needles containing "radium emanation", a colourless, radioactive gas given off by radium, later identified as [[radon]], to be used for sterilizing infected tissue. She provided the radium from her own one-gram supply.<ref name="Marie Curie War2"/> It is estimated that over a million wounded soldiers were treated with her X-ray units.<ref name="Marie Curie"/><ref name="psb113"/> Busy with this work, she carried out very little scientific research during that period.<ref name="psb113"/> In spite of all her humanitarian contributions to the French war effort, Curie never received any formal recognition of it from the French government.<ref name="Marie Curie War"/>

Also, promptly after the war started, she attempted to donate her gold Nobel Prize medals to the war effort but the [[Banque de France|French National Bank]] refused to accept them.<ref name="Marie Curie War2"/>  She did buy [[war bonds]], using her Nobel Prize money.<ref name="Marie Curie War2"/> She said:<blockquote>I am going to give up the little gold I possess. I shall add to this the scientific medals, which are quite useless to me. There is something else: by sheer laziness I had allowed the money for my second Nobel Prize to remain in Stockholm in Swedish crowns. This is the chief part of what we possess. I should like to bring it back here and invest it in war loans. The state needs it. Only, I have no illusions: this money will probably be lost.<ref name="Coppes-Zantinga, A. R 1998" /> </blockquote>She was also an active member in committees of [[Poles in France|Polonia in France]] dedicated to the Polish cause.<ref name="emigracja" /> After the war, she summarized her wartime experiences in a book, ''Radiology in War'' (1919).<ref name="Marie Curie War2" />

===Postwar years===
In 1920, for the 25th anniversary of the discovery of radium, the French government established a stipend for her; its previous recipient was [[Louis Pasteur]] (1822–95).<ref name="psb113"/> In 1921, she was welcomed triumphantly when she toured the United States to raise funds for research on radium. [[Marie Mattingly Meloney|Mrs. William Brown Meloney]], after interviewing Curie, created a ''Marie Curie Radium Fund'' and raised money to buy radium, publicising her trip.<ref name="psb113"/><ref name="Marie Sklodowska Curie in America, 1921"/>{{efn|Marie Skłodowska Curie was escorted to the United States by the American author and social activist [[Charlotte Kellogg|Charlotte Hoffman Kellogg]].<ref>[[Charlotte Kellogg]] ([[Carmel, California]]), ''An intimate picture of Madame Curie, from diary notes covering a friendship of fifteen years''.  In the&nbsp;[http://marklogic.lib.uchicago.edu:8002/view.xqy?id=ICU.SPCL.SCHAFFNER&c=f Joseph Halle Schaffner Collection in the History of Science]{{Dead link|date=March 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, 1642–1961, Special Collections, [[University of Chicago Library]].</ref>}}

In 1921, U.S. President [[Warren G. Harding]] received her at the White House to present her with the 1&nbsp;gram of radium collected in the United States, and the First Lady praised her as an example of a professional achiever who was also a supportive wife.<ref name="Madame Curie's Passion"/><ref name="The Radium Institute"/> Before the meeting, recognising her growing fame abroad, and embarrassed by the fact that she had no French official distinctions to wear in public, the French government offered her a [[Legion of Honour]] award, but she refused.<ref name="The Radium Institute"/><ref name="Pasachoff1996"/> In 1922 she became a fellow of the [[French Academy of Medicine]].<ref name="psb113"/> She also travelled to other countries, appearing publicly and giving lectures in Belgium, Brazil, Spain, and Czechoslovakia.<ref name=amudeu/>
[[File:Irene and Marie Curie 1925.jpg|thumb|upright|Marie and daughter [[Irène Curie|Irène]], 1925]]
Led by Curie, the Institute produced four more Nobel Prize winners, including her daughter [[Irène Joliot-Curie]] and her son-in-law, [[Frédéric Joliot-Curie]].<ref name="The Radium Institute 2" /> Eventually it became one of the world's four major radioactivity-research laboratories, the others being the [[Cavendish Laboratory]], with [[Ernest Rutherford]]; the [[Institute for Radium Research, Vienna]], with [[Stefan Meyer (physicist)|Stefan Meyer]]; and the [[Max Planck Institute for Chemistry|Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Chemistry]], with [[Otto Hahn]] and [[Lise Meitner]].<ref name="The Radium Institute 2"/><ref name="Chemistry International&nbsp;– Newsmagazine for IUPAC"/>

In August 1922 Marie Curie became a member of the [[League of Nations]]' newly created [[International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation]].<ref>{{Cite journal| volume = | issue = 2| last = Grandjean| first = Martin| title = Analisi e visualizzazioni delle reti in storia. L'esempio della cooperazione intellettuale della Società delle Nazioni| journal = Memoria e Ricerca| date = 2017| pages = 371–393| doi = 10.14647/87204}} See also: [https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01610098v2 French version] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107004313/https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01610098v2 |date=7 November 2017 }} (PDF) and [http://www.martingrandjean.ch/complex-structures-and-international-organizations/ English summary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171102034717/http://www.martingrandjean.ch/complex-structures-and-international-organizations/ |date=2 November 2017 }}.</ref><ref name="nytimes"/> She sat on the Committee until 1934 and contributed to League of Nations' scientific coordination with other prominent researchers such as [[Albert Einstein]], [[Hendrik Lorentz]], and [[Henri Bergson]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Grandjean |first=Martin |date=2018 |title=Les réseaux de la coopération intellectuelle. La Société des Nations comme actrice des échanges scientifiques et culturels dans l'entre-deux-guerres |trans-title=The Networks of Intellectual Cooperation. The League of Nations as an Actor of the Scientific and Cultural Exchanges in the Inter-War Period |url=https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01853903/document |language=fr |location=Lausanne |publisher=Université de Lausanne |access-date=27 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912022034/https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01853903/document |archive-date=12 September 2018 |url-status=live }} (i.e. pp. 303-305)</ref> In 1923 she wrote a biography of her late husband, titled ''Pierre Curie''.<ref name="leg"/> In 1925 she visited Poland to participate in a ceremony laying the foundations for Warsaw's [[Curie Institute, Warsaw|Radium Institute]].<ref name="psb113"/> Her second American tour, in 1929, succeeded in equipping the Warsaw Radium Institute with radium; the Institute opened in 1932, with her sister Bronisława its director.<ref name="psb113"/><ref name="The Radium Institute"/> These distractions from her scientific labours, and the attendant publicity, caused her much discomfort but provided resources for her work.<ref name="The Radium Institute"/> In 1930 she was elected to the [[Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights|International Atomic Weights Committee]], on which she served until her death.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2004/2601/1_holden.html|title=Atomic Weights and the International Committee: A Historical Review|author=Norman E. Holden|journal=Chemistry International|year=2004|access-date=11 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181219161333/http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2004/2601/1_holden.html|archive-date=19 December 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1931, Curie was awarded the [[Cameron Prize for Therapeutics of the University of Edinburgh]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.europeana.eu/portal/en/exhibitions/pioneers/maria-sklodowska-curie|title=Maria Skłodowska-Curie|website=Europeana Exhibitions|access-date=2020-03-05}}</ref>

===Death===
[[File:Sklodowska-Curie statue, Warsaw.JPG|thumb|upright|1935 statue, facing the Radium Institute, [[Warsaw]]]]
Curie visited Poland for the last time in early 1934.<ref name="gwiazdapolarna"/><ref name="The Radium Institute 3"/> A few months later, on 4 July 1934, she died at the [[Sancellemoz]] sanatorium in [[Passy, Haute-Savoie]], from [[aplastic anemia|aplastic anaemia]] believed to have been contracted from her long-term exposure to radiation.<ref name="psb113"/><ref name="iuniverse"/>

The damaging effects of ionising radiation were not known at the time of her work, which had been carried out without the safety measures later developed.<ref name="The Radium Institute 3"/> She had carried test tubes containing radioactive isotopes in her pocket,<ref name="ShipmanWilson2012"/> and she stored them in her desk drawer, remarking on the [[Radioluminescence|faint light]] that the substances gave off in the dark.<ref name="The Vertigo Years: Europe, 1900–1914"/> Curie was also exposed to X-rays from unshielded equipment while serving as a radiologist in field hospitals during the war.<ref name="Marie Curie War2"/> Although her many decades of exposure to radiation caused chronic illnesses (including near-blindness due to [[cataract]]s) and ultimately her death, she never really acknowledged the health risks of radiation exposure.<ref>Denise Grady (6 October 1998), [https://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/06/science/a-glow-in-the-dark-and-a-lesson-in-scientific-peril.html A Glow in the Dark, and a Lesson in Scientific Peril] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170310011442/http://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/06/science/a-glow-in-the-dark-and-a-lesson-in-scientific-peril.html |date=10 March 2017 }} ''[[The New York Times]]''; accessed 21 December 2016.</ref>

She was interred at the cemetery in [[Sceaux, Hauts-de-Seine|Sceaux]], alongside her husband Pierre.<ref name="psb113"/> Sixty years later, in 1995, in honour of their achievements, the remains of both were transferred to the Paris [[Panthéon]]. Their remains were sealed in a [[lead]] lining because of the radioactivity.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencealert.com/these-personal-effects-of-marie-curie-will-be-radioactive-for-another-1-500-years|title=Marie Curie's Belongings Will Be Radioactive For Another 1,500 Years|first=Barbara|last=Tasch|publisher=|access-date=2 July 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> She became the first woman to be honoured with interment in the Panthéon on her own merits.<ref name="nytimes"/>

Because of their levels of radioactive contamination, her papers from the 1890s are considered too dangerous to handle.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://gizmodo.com/marie-curies-100-year-old-notebook-is-still-too-radioac-1615847891|title=Marie Curie's century-old radioactive notebook still requires lead box|first=Adam Clark|last=Estes|publisher=|access-date=9 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913230200/http://gizmodo.com/marie-curies-100-year-old-notebook-is-still-too-radioac-1615847891|archive-date=13 September 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> Even her cookbook is highly radioactive.<ref name="everything"/> Her papers are kept in lead-lined boxes, and those who wish to consult them must wear protective clothing.<ref name="everything"/> In her last year, she worked on a book, ''Radioactivity'', which was published posthumously in 1935.<ref name="The Radium Institute 3"/>

==Legacy==
[[File:Lublin UMCS Pomnik Marii Curie-Skłodowskiej.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Marie Curie Monument in Lublin]]]]
The physical and societal aspects of the Curies' work contributed to shaping the world of the twentieth and twenty-first centuries.<ref name="psb114"/> Cornell University professor [[L. Pearce Williams|{{nowrap|L. Pearce}} Williams]] observes:{{blockquote|The result of the Curies' work was epoch-making. Radium's radioactivity was so great that it could not be ignored. It seemed to contradict the principle of the conservation of energy and therefore forced a reconsideration of the foundations of physics. On the experimental level the discovery of radium provided men like Ernest Rutherford with sources of radioactivity with which they could probe the structure of the atom. As a result of Rutherford's experiments with alpha radiation, the nuclear atom was first postulated. In medicine, the radioactivity of radium appeared to offer a means by which cancer could be successfully attacked.<ref name="Williams332"/>}}

If Curie's work helped overturn established ideas in physics and chemistry, it has had an equally profound effect in the societal sphere. To attain her scientific achievements, she had to overcome barriers, in both her native and her adoptive country, that were placed in her way because she was a woman. This aspect of her life and career is highlighted in [[Françoise Giroud]]'s ''Marie Curie: A Life'', which emphasizes Curie's role as a feminist precursor.<ref name="gwiazdapolarna"/>

She was known for her honesty and moderate lifestyle.<ref name="psb112"/><ref name="psb114"/> Having received a small scholarship in 1893, she returned it in 1897 as soon as she began earning her keep.<ref name="psb111"/><ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris 2"/> She gave much of her first Nobel Prize money to friends, family, students, and research associates.<ref name="gwiazdapolarna"/> In an unusual decision, Curie intentionally refrained from patenting the radium-isolation process so that the scientific community could do research unhindered.<ref name="robert8"/> She insisted that monetary gifts and awards be given to the scientific institutions she was affiliated with rather than to her.<ref name="psb114"/> She and her husband often refused awards and medals.<ref name="psb112"/> [[Albert Einstein]] reportedly remarked that she was probably the only person who could not be corrupted by fame.<ref name="gwiazdapolarna"/>

==Honours, tributes==
[[File:Panthéon Pierre et Marie Curie.JPG|thumb|upright|Tomb of [[Pierre Curie|Pierre]] and Marie Curie, [[Panthéon, Paris]], 2011]]
[[File:CERN, Marie Curie, Ginebra, Suiza, 2015 19.JPG|thumb|upright| Bust of "Maria Skłodowska-Curie", [[Microcosm (CERN)|CERN Museum]], [[Switzerland]], 2015]]
As one of the most famous scientists, Marie Curie has become an icon in the scientific world and has received tributes from across the globe, even in the realm of [[popular culture|pop culture]].<ref name="Borzendowski2009-36"/> In a 2009 poll carried out by ''[[New Scientist]]'', she was voted the "most inspirational woman in science". Curie received 25.1 percent of all votes cast, nearly twice as many as second-place [[Rosalind Franklin]] (14.2 per cent).<ref name="Most inspirational woman scientist revealed"/><ref name="Marie Curie voted greatest female scientist"/>

Poland and France declared 2011 the Year of Marie Curie, and the [[United Nations]] declared that this would be the International Year of Chemistry.<ref name=cosm/> An artistic installation celebrating "Madame Curie" filled the [[Jacobs Gallery]] at [[San Diego]]'s [[Museum of Contemporary Art San Diego|Museum of Contemporary Art]].<ref name="Madame Curie art"/> On 7 November, [[Google]] celebrated the anniversary of her birth with a special [[Google Doodle]].<ref name="Marie Curie’s 144th Birthday Google Doodle"/> On 10 December, the [[New York Academy of Sciences]] celebrated the centenary of Marie Curie's second [[Nobel Prize]] in the presence of [[Princess Madeleine, Duchess of Hälsingland and Gästrikland|Princess Madeleine of Sweden]].<ref name="Princess Madeleine attends celebrations to mark anniversary of Marie Curie's second Nobel Prize"/>

Marie Curie was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize, the first person to win two Nobel Prizes, the only woman to win in two fields, and the only person to win in [[Nobel Prize#Multiple laureates|multiple sciences]].<ref name="Nobel Prize Facts"/> Awards that she received include:
* [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] (1903, with her husband Pierre Curie and Henri Becquerel)<ref name="psb112"/>
* [[Davy Medal]] (1903, with Pierre)<ref name="amudeu"/><ref name="CurieSheean1999"/>
* [[Matteucci Medal]] (1904, with Pierre)<ref name="CurieSheean1999"/>
* [[Actonian Prize]] (1907)<ref>{{cite journal|title=Scientific Notes and News|journal=Science|volume=25|issue=647|year=1907|pages=839–840|issn=0036-8075|doi=10.1126/science.25.647.839|bibcode=1907Sci....25..839.|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1974994|access-date=24 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190426190212/https://zenodo.org/record/1974994/files/article.pdf|archive-date=26 April 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Elliott Cresson Medal]] (1909)<ref name="winners"/>
* [[Nobel Prize in Chemistry]] (1911)<ref name="gwiazdapolarna"/>
* [[Benjamin Franklin Medal (American Philosophical Society)|Franklin Medal]] of the [[American Philosophical Society]] (1921)<ref name="Minutes"/>

Marie Curie's 1898 publication with her husband and their collaborator [[Gustave Bémont]]<ref name="Paper">{{Cite journal |last1=Curie |first1=M.P. |last2=Curie |first2=Mme .P |last3=Bémont |first3=M.G. |title=sur une nouvelle substance fortement redio-active, contenue dans la pechblende |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3083q/f1217.image |journal=Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences |language=French |location=Paris |date=26 December 1898 |volume=127 |pages=1215–1217 |access-date=28 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329052223/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k3083q/f1217.image |archive-date=29 March 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> of their discovery of radium and polonium was honoured by a Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award from the Division of History of Chemistry of the American Chemical Society presented to the ESPCI Paris in 2015.<ref name="Award">{{cite web|title=2015 Awardees|url=http://www.scs.illinois.edu/~mainzv/HIST/awards/CCB-2015_Awardees.php|website=American Chemical Society, Division of the History of Chemistry|publisher=University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign School of Chemical Sciences|date=2015|accessdate=1 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160621153928/http://www.scs.illinois.edu/~mainzv/HIST/awards/CCB-2015_Awardees.php|archive-date=21 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Breakthrough">{{cite web|title=Citation for Chemical Breakthrough Award|url=http://www.scs.illinois.edu/~mainzv/HIST/awards/Citations/2015-Curie%20&%20Curie%20plaque.pdf|website=American Chemical Society, Division of the History of Chemistry|publisher=University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign School of Chemical Sciences|date=2015|accessdate=1 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919184204/http://www.scs.illinois.edu/~mainzv/HIST/awards/Citations/2015-Curie%20%26%20Curie%20plaque.pdf|archive-date=19 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In 1995, she became the first woman to be entombed on her own merits in the [[Panthéon, Paris]].<ref name="nytimes"/> The [[Curie (unit)|curie]] (symbol '''Ci'''), a unit of radioactivity, is named in honour of her and Pierre Curie (although the commission which agreed on the name never clearly stated whether the standard was named after Pierre, Marie or both of them).<ref name="How the Curie Came to Be"/> The element with atomic number 96 was named [[curium]].<ref name="Curium"/> Three radioactive minerals are also named after the Curies: [[curite]], [[sklodowskite]], and [[cuprosklodowskite]].<ref name="Borzendowski2009-37"/> She received numerous honorary degrees from universities across the world.<ref name="The Radium Institute"/> The [[Marie Skłodowska-Curie Actions]] fellowship program of the [[European Union]] for young scientists wishing to work in a foreign country is named after her.<ref>{{cite web|title=Marie Curie Actions |url=http://ec.europa.eu/research/mariecurieactions/documents/documentation/publications/eu-marie-curie-actions-fellowships-innovative-science-becomes-success-publication_en.pdf |publisher=European Commission |accessdate=10 September 2012 |page=5 |year=2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130604030857/http://ec.europa.eu/research/mariecurieactions/documents/documentation/publications/eu-marie-curie-actions-fellowships-innovative-science-becomes-success-publication_en.pdf |archivedate=4 June 2013 |df= }}</ref> In Poland, she had received honorary doctorates from the [[Lwów Polytechnic]] (1912),<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thebirminghampress.com/2012/07/coventry-professors-honorary-degree-takes-him-in-footsteps-of-marie-curie/ |title=Coventry professor's honorary degree takes him in footsteps of Marie Curie |website=Birmingham Press |date=31 July 2012 |accessdate=6 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180402035343/http://thebirminghampress.com/2012/07/coventry-professors-honorary-degree-takes-him-in-footsteps-of-marie-curie/ |archive-date=2 April 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Poznań University]] (1922), [[Kraków]]'s [[Jagiellonian University]] (1924), and the [[Warsaw Polytechnic]] (1926).<ref name="cosm"/>

In 1920 she became the first female member of [[Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters|The Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.royalacademy.dk/da/Aktuelt/Marie-Curie|title=MarieCurie {{!}} Royal Academy|website=www.royalacademy.dk|access-date=2020-04-23}}</ref> In 1921, in the U.S., she was awarded membership in the [[Iota Sigma Pi]] women scientists' society.<ref name="Awards">{{cite web|url=http://www.iotasigmapi.info/awards/professionalawards.html|title=Professional Awards|publisher=Iota Stigma Pi: National Honor Society for Women in Chemistry|accessdate=16 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323234904/http://www.iotasigmapi.info/awards/professionalawards.html|archive-date=23 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1924, she became an Honorary Member of the [[Polish Chemical Society]].<ref>{{cite news|url=https://ptchem.pl/pl/honors/president-of-honor-and-honorary-members-of-ptchem |title=President of honour and honorary members of PTChem |access-date=23 February 2020}}</ref>

Her name is included on the ''[[Monument to the X-ray and Radium Martyrs of All Nations]]'', erected in [[Hamburg]], Germany in 1936.<ref name="MMI">{{cite web|url=http://learningradiology.com/museum/humilityhome.html|title=Museum of Modern Imaging|accessdate=27 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190221234651/http://learningradiology.com/museum/humilityhome.html|archive-date=21 February 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

Numerous locations around the world are named after her. In 2007, [[Pierre et Marie Curie (Paris Métro)|a metro station in Paris]] was renamed to honour both of the Curies.<ref name="Borzendowski2009-37"/> Polish nuclear research [[Maria reactor|reactor Maria]] is named after her.<ref name="IEA – reaktor Maria"/> The [[7000 Curie]] asteroid is also named after her.<ref name="Borzendowski2009-37"/> A [[KLM]] [[McDonnell Douglas MD-11]] (registration PH-KCC) is named in her honour.<ref name="Picture of the McDonnell Douglas MD-11 aircraft"/>

Several institutions bear her name, starting with the two Curie institutes: the [[Curie Institute, Warsaw|Maria Skłodowska-Curie Institute of Oncology]], in Warsaw and the ''[[Curie Institute (Paris)|Institut Curie]]'' in Paris. She is the patron of [[Maria Curie-Skłodowska University]], in [[Lublin]], founded in 1944; and of [[Pierre and Marie Curie University]] (Paris VI), France's pre-eminent science university. In Britain, [[Marie Curie Cancer Care]] was organized in 1948 to care for the terminally ill.<ref>[[Charity Commission for England and Wales|Charity Commission]]. [https://apps.charitycommission.gov.uk/Showcharity/RegisterOfCharities/SearchResultHandler.aspx?RegisteredCharityNumber=207994 Marie Curie (charity), registered charity no. 207994].</ref>

Two museums are devoted to Marie Curie. In 1967, the [[Maria Skłodowska-Curie Museum]] was established in Warsaw's "[[Warsaw New Town|New Town]]", at her birthplace on ''ulica Freta'' (Freta Street).<ref name="gwiazdapolarna"/> Her Paris laboratory is preserved as the [[Musée Curie]], open since 1992.<ref name="curie"/>

Several works of art bear her likeness. In 1935, Michalina Mościcka, wife of Polish President [[Ignacy Mościcki]], unveiled a statue of Marie Curie before Warsaw's Radium Institute. During the 1944 [[Second World War]] [[Warsaw Uprising]] against the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi German]] occupation, the monument was damaged by gunfire; after the war it was decided to leave the bullet marks on the statue and its pedestal.<ref name="gwiazdapolarna"/> In 1955 [[Jozef Mazur]] created a stained glass panel of her, the [[Maria Skłodowska-Curie Medallion]], featured in the [[University at Buffalo]] Polish Room.<ref name="buffalo"/>

A number of biographies are devoted to her. In 1938 her daughter, [[Ève Curie]], published ''Madame Curie''. In 1987 [[Françoise Giroud]] wrote ''Marie Curie: A Life''. In 2005 [[Barbara Goldsmith]] wrote ''Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie''.<ref name=cosm/> In 2011 [[Lauren Redniss]] published ''Radioactive: Marie and Pierre Curie, a Tale of Love and Fallout''.<ref name="Radioactive: Marie and Pierre Curie, a Tale of Love and Fallout"/>

Marie Curie has been the subject of several biographical films:

* [[Greer Garson]] and [[Walter Pidgeon]] starred in the 1943 U.S. Oscar-nominated film, ''[[Madame Curie (film)|Madame Curie]]'', based on her life.<ref name="leg" /> 
* In 1997, a French film about Pierre and Marie Curie was released, ''[[Les Palmes de M. Schutz]]''. It was adapted from a play of the same name. In the film, Marie Curie was played by [[Isabelle Huppert]].<ref name="Les-Palmes-de-M-Schutz – Trailer – Cast – Showtimes – NYTimes.com" />
* ''[[Marie Curie: The Courage of Knowledge]]'' was produced internationally in Europe and released in 2016.
* ''[[Radioactive (film)|Radioactive]]'' was released in 2019.

Curie is the subject of the 2013 play ''False Assumptions'' by [[Lawrence Aronovitch]], in which the ghosts of three other women scientists observe events in her life.<ref>[http://www.ottawasun.com/2013/03/26/mixing-science-with-theatre Mixing Science With Theatre] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140512223248/http://www.ottawasun.com/2013/03/26/mixing-science-with-theatre |date=12 May 2014 }} – Ottawa Sun, March 2013</ref> Curie has also been portrayed by Susan Marie Frontczak in her play ''Manya: The Living History of Marie Curie'', a one-woman show performed in 30 U.S. states and nine countries, by 2014.<ref name="Main, Douglas">{{cite web|url=http://www.popsci.com/article/science/famous-image-marie-curie-isnt-marie-curie|title=This Famous Image Of Marie Curie Isn't Marie Curie|publisher=Popular Science www.popsci.com|date=7 March 2014|accessdate=15 November 2014|author=Main, Douglas|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110231415/http://www.popsci.com/article/science/famous-image-marie-curie-isnt-marie-curie|archive-date=10 November 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

Curie's likeness also has appeared on banknotes, stamps and coins around the world.<ref name="Borzendowski2009-37"/> She was featured on the Polish late-1980s 20,000-''[[złoty]]'' [[banknote]]<ref name="Council1997" /> as well as on the last French 500-[[₣|franc]] note, before the franc was replaced by the euro.<ref name="Letcher2003"/> Curie-themed postage stamps from [[Mali]], the [[Republic of Togo]], [[Zambia]], and the [[Republic of Guinea]] actually show a picture of Susan Marie Frontczak portraying Curie in a 2001 picture by Paul Schroeder.<ref name="Main, Douglas"/>

In 2011, on the [[centenary]] of Marie Curie's second Nobel Prize, an [[allegory|allegorical]] mural was painted on the [[façade]] of her Warsaw [[Maria Skłodowska-Curie Museum|birthplace]]. It depicted an infant Maria Skłodowska holding a test tube from which emanated the elements that she would discover as an adult: [[polonium]] and [[radium]].

Also in 2011, a new [[Maria Skłodowska-Curie Bridge, Warsaw|Warsaw bridge]] over the [[Vistula River]] was named in her honour.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.vistal.pl/realizacje/mosty-realizacje/most-marii-curie-sklodowskiej-polska-realizacja/ |title=Most Marii Skłodowskiej-Curie, Polska » Vistal Gdynia |website=www.vistal.pl |access-date=2017-01-26 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160329160957/http://www.vistal.pl/realizacje/mosty-realizacje/most-marii-curie-sklodowskiej-polska-realizacja/ |archivedate=29 March 2016 |df= }}</ref>

In January 2020, [[Satellogic]], a high-resolution [[Earth observation]] imaging and analytics company, launched a [[ÑuSat]] type [[Small satellite|micro-satellite]] named in honour of Marie Curie.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.space.com/china-long-march-2d-satellites-january-2020-launch-success.html/|title=China lofts 4 satellites into orbit with its second launch of 2020 |website=space.com|language=en-US|access-date=30 January 2020}}</ref>

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Charlotte Kellogg#Marie Curie|Charlotte Hoffman Kellogg]], who sponsored Marie Curie's visit to the US
* [[Eusapia Palladino#France|Eusapia Palladino]]: [[Spiritualism|Spiritualist]] [[Medium (spirituality)|medium]] whose Paris [[séances]] were attended by an intrigued Pierre Curie and a skeptical Marie Curie
* [[Marie Curie Medal]]
* ''[[Genius (2017 TV series)|Genius]]'', television series depicting Einstein's life
* [[List of female Nobel laureates]]
* [[List of multiple discoveries#19th century|List of multiple discoveries]] (1898 discovery of [[thorium]] [[radioactivity]])
* [[List of Poles#Chemistry|List of Poles]] (Chemistry)
* [[List of Poles#Physics|List of Poles]] (Physics)
* [[Maria Skłodowska-Curie Museum]], [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]]
* ''[[Marie Curie Gargoyle]]'' (1988), at [[University of Oregon]]
* [[Poles#Science and technology|Poles]]
* [[Timeline of women in science]]
* ''[[Treatise on Radioactivity]]'', by Marie Curie
* [[Women in chemistry]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em|refs=
<ref name="How the Curie Came to Be">{{cite web|author=Paul W. Frame|title=How the Curie Came to Be|url=http://www.orau.org/ptp/articlesstories/thecurie.htm|publisher=Oak Ridge Associated Universities|date=October–November 1996|accessdate=30 April 2008|archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/682OAGTzM?url=http://www.orau.org/ptp/articlesstories/thecurie.htm|archive-date=30 May 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Williams331">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia Americana, ''vol. 8''|year=1986|publisher=[[Grolier]], Inc.|location=[[Danbury, Connecticut]]|page=331|author=L. Pearce Williams|chapter=Curie, Pierre and Marie|title-link=Encyclopedia Americana}}</ref>

<ref name="williams">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia Americana, ''vol. 8''|year=1986|publisher=[[Grolier]], Inc.|location=[[Danbury, Connecticut]]|pages=331–332|author=L. Pearce Williams|chapter=Curie, Pierre and Marie|title-link=Encyclopedia Americana}}</ref>

<ref name="Williams332">{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia Americana, ''vol. 8''|year=1986|publisher=[[Grolier]], Inc.|location=[[Danbury, Connecticut]]|page=332|author=L. Pearce Williams|chapter=Curie, Pierre and Marie|title-link=Encyclopedia Americana}}</ref>

<ref name="Madame Curie art">{{cite news|first=James|last=Chute|title=Video artist Steinkamp's flowery 'Madame Curie' is challenging, and stunning|work=signonsandiego.com|date=5 March 2011|accessdate=14 April 2011|url=http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/2011/mar/05/video-artist-steinkamp-madame-curie/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110507153347/http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/2011/mar/05/video-artist-steinkamp-madame-curie/|archive-date=7 May 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie voted greatest female scientist">{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/scienceandtechnology/science/sciencenews/5715220/Marie-Curie-voted-greatest-female-scientist.html|work=The Daily Telegraph|title=Marie Curie voted greatest female scientist|quote=Marie Curie, the Nobel Prize-winning nuclear physicist has been voted the greatest woman scientist of all time.|location=London|date=2 July 2009|accessdate=10 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705102302/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/scienceandtechnology/science/sciencenews/5715220/Marie-Curie-voted-greatest-female-scientist.html|archive-date=5 July 2009|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Most inspirational woman scientist revealed">{{cite web |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20327156.600-most-inspirational-woman-scientist-revealed.html |title=Most inspirational woman scientist revealed |work=Newscientist.com |date=2 July 2009 |accessdate=27 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111206232845/http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20327156.600-most-inspirational-woman-scientist-revealed.html |archive-date=6 December 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Picture of the McDonnell Douglas MD-11 aircraft">{{cite web |url=http://www.airliners.net/open.file/1207719/L/ |title=Picture of the McDonnell Douglas MD-11 aircraft |work=Airliners.net |accessdate=27 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318081130/http://www.airliners.net/open.file/1207719/L/ |archive-date=18 March 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="The Vertigo Years: Europe, 1900–1914">{{cite book | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-3G9gMNCpowC&pg=PA76 | first=Philipp | last=Blom | title=The Vertigo Years: Europe, 1900–1914 | chapter=1903: A Strange Luminescence | page=[https://archive.org/details/vertigoyearseuro00blom/page/76 76] | quote=The glowing tubes looked like faint, fairy lights. | year=2008 | publisher=Basic Books | isbn=978-0-465-01116-2 | url=https://archive.org/details/vertigoyearseuro00blom/page/76 }}</ref>

<ref name="The discovery of radium in 1898 by Maria Sklodowska-Curie (1867–1934) and Pierre Curie (1859–1906) with commentary on their life and times">{{cite journal | title = The discovery of radium in 1898 by Maria Sklodowska-Curie (1867–1934) and Pierre Curie (1859–1906) with commentary on their life and times | last = Mould | first = R. F. | journal=The British Journal of Radiology | volume = 71 | year = 1998 | pages = 1229–54 | pmid = 10318996 | issue = 852 | doi=10.1259/bjr.71.852.10318996}}</ref>

<ref name="emigracja">{{cite book|first=Wiesław|last=Śladkowski|title=Emigracja polska we Francji 1871–1918|language=Polish|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0MwaAAAAMAAJ|year=1980|publisher=Wydawnictwo Lubelskie|page=274|isbn=978-83-222-0147-3|accessdate=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160617100730/https://books.google.com/books?id=0MwaAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=17 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="everything">{{cite book|first=Bill|last=Bryson|title=A Short History of Nearly Everything|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_CWlKRYLbIwC|date=2012|publisher=Random House Digital, Inc.|isbn=978-0-385-67450-8|page=74|access-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126212137/https://books.google.com/books?id=_CWlKRYLbIwC|archive-date=26 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="goldsmith">{{cite book|first=Barbara|last=Goldsmith|title=Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xuYSLk_tHfgC|year=2005|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-05137-7|page=149|accessdate=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505041336/https://books.google.com/books?id=xuYSLk_tHfgC|archive-date=5 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="goldsmith11">{{cite book|first=Barbara|last=Goldsmith|title=Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xuYSLk_tHfgC|year=2005|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-05137-7|pages=165–76|accessdate=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505041336/https://books.google.com/books?id=xuYSLk_tHfgC|archive-date=5 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="goldsmith9">{{cite book|first=Barbara|last=Goldsmith|title=Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xuYSLk_tHfgC|year=2005|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-05137-7|pages=170–71|accessdate=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505041336/https://books.google.com/books?id=xuYSLk_tHfgC|archive-date=5 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="gwiazdapolarna">{{cite journal|title=Mazowieckie korzenie Marii |journal=[[Gwiazda Polarna]] |date=21 June 2008 |volume=100 |issue=13 |pages=16–17 |url=http://www.gwiazdapolarna.com/czytaj.php?nr=813&cat=4&art=04-01.txt |accessdate=10 September 2012 |author=Wojciech A. Wierzewski |trans-title=Maria's Mazowsze Roots |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090321193811/http://www.gwiazdapolarna.com/czytaj.php?nr=813&cat=4&art=04-01.txt |archivedate=21 March 2009 }}</ref>

<ref name="independence">{{cite journal|last=Kabzińska|first=Krystyna|title=''Chemiczne i polskie aspekty odkrycia polonu i radu''|journal=Przemysł Chemiczny (The Chemical Industry)|year=1998|volume=77|pages=104–107|trans-title=Chemical and Polish Aspects of Polonium and Radium Discovery|language=Polish}}</ref>

<ref name="iuniverse">{{cite book|first=Carl|last=Rollyson|title=Marie Curie: Honesty In Science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PinksBysPJwC|date=2004|publisher=iUniverse|page=x|isbn=978-0-595-34059-0|access-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124162132/https://books.google.com/books?id=PinksBysPJwC|archive-date=24 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="obit">{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1906/04/20/archives/prof-curie-killed-in-a-paris-street-the-discoverer-of-radium-run.html |title=Prof. Curie killed in a Paris street |format=PDF |date=20 April 1906 |accessdate=8 February 2011 |work=The New York Times |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180725215446/https://www.nytimes.com/1906/04/20/archives/prof-curie-killed-in-a-paris-street-the-discoverer-of-radium-run.html |archive-date=25 July 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie’s 144th Birthday Google Doodle">{{cite web |url=http://www.doodletoday.com/marie-curies-144th-birthday/ |title=Marie Curie's 144th Birthday Anniversary |date=7 November 2011 |accessdate=9 November 2011 |work=DoodleToday.com |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111109171459/http://www.doodletoday.com/marie-curies-144th-birthday/ |archive-date=9 November 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="robert10">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|pages=44, 90|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|accessdate=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie">{{Cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|page=6|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|quote=Unusually at such an early age, she became what T.H. Huxley had just invented a word for: agnostic.|accessdate=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Robert Reid p. 65">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|page=65|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|accessdate=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="robert2">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|page=24|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|accessdate=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="robert3">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|page=32|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|accessdate=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="robert4">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|pages=61–63|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|accessdate=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="robert5">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|pages=63–64|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|accessdate=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="robert6">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|page=64|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|accessdate=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="robert7">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|pages=64–65|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|accessdate=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="robert8">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|page=265|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|accessdate=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="teachers">{{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|pages=23|isbn=978-0-00-211539-1|accessdate=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160611033456/https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|archive-date=11 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Madame Curie's Passion">{{cite web| url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Madame-Curies-Passion.html| title=Madame Curie's Passion| work=Smithsonian Magazine| author=Julie Des Jardins| date=October 2011| accessdate=11 September 2012| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121127184144/http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/Madame-Curies-Passion.html| archive-date=27 November 2012| url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/polgirl1.htm |title=Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891) Part 1 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102131239/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/polgirl1.htm |archive-date=2 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891)1">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/polgirl2.htm |title=Marie Curie&nbsp;– Polish Girlhood (1867–1891) Part 2 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102134102/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/polgirl2.htm |archive-date=2 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/stud1.htm |title=Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris (1891–1897) Part 1 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028155638/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/stud1.htm |archive-date=28 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris 2">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/stud2.htm |title=Marie Curie&nbsp;– Student in Paris (1891–1897) Part 2 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912012411/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/stud2.htm |archive-date=12 September 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/resbr1.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– Research Breakthroughs (1807–1904)Part 1 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028083750/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/resbr1.htm |archive-date=28 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 2">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/resbr2.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– Research Breakthroughs (1807–1904)Part 2 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111118025917/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/resbr2.htm |archive-date=18 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity 3">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/resbr3.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– Research Breakthroughs (1807–1904) Part 3 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111118025922/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/resbr3.htm |archive-date=18 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/recdis1.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– Recognition and Disappointment (1903–1905) Part 1 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028155633/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/recdis1.htm |archive-date=28 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie Rec and Dis2">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/trag2.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– Recognition and Disappointment (1903–1905) Part 2 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912055708/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/trag2.htm |archive-date=12 September 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie Tr and Ad">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/recdis2.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– Tragedy and Adjustment (1906–1910) Part 1 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111026022331/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/recdis2.htm |archive-date=26 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie Tr and Ad2">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/trag1.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– Tragedy and Adjustment (1906–1910) Part 2 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102133949/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/trag1.htm |archive-date=2 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/scandal1.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– Scandal and Recovery (1910–1913) Part 1 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111218035026/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/scandal1.htm |archive-date=18 December 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie Sc and Rec2">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/trag2.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– Scandal and Recovery (1910–1913) Part 2 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912055708/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/trag2.htm |archive-date=12 September 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie War">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/war1.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– War Duty (1914–1919) Part 1 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102230854/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/war1.htm |archive-date=2 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Curie War2">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/war2.htm |title=Marie Curie &nbsp;– War Duty (1914–1919) Part 2 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110912173614/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/war2.htm |archive-date=12 September 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="The Radium Institute">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/radinst1.htm |title=Marie Curie&nbsp;– The Radium Institute (1919–1934) Part 1 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028083629/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/radinst1.htm |archive-date=28 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="The Radium Institute 2">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/radinst2.htm |title=Marie Curie&nbsp;– The Radium Institute (1919–1934) Part 2 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028083745/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/radinst2.htm |archive-date=28 October 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="The Radium Institute 3">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/radinst3.htm |title=Marie Curie&nbsp;– The Radium Institute (1919–1934) Part 3 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928120440/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/radinst3.htm |archive-date=28 September 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="leg">{{cite web |url=http://www.aip.org/history/curie/romleg.htm |title=Marie Curie and Her Legend |publisher=American Institute of Physics |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120101142723/http://www.aip.org/history/curie/romleg.htm |archive-date=1 January 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Marie Sklodowska Curie in America, 1921">{{cite journal|author=Ann M. Lewicki |title=Marie Sklodowska Curie in America, 1921 |volume= 223 | issue =2 |year=2002 |pages=299–303 |journal=Radiology |doi=10.1148/radiol.2232011319|pmid=11997527}}</ref>

<ref name="Minutes">{{cite journal|title=Minutes |journal=[[Proc. Am. Philos. Soc.]] |volume=60 |issue=4 |pages=iii–xxiv |year=1921 |jstor=984523}}</ref>

<ref name="nobelprize">{{cite web |url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1903/marie-curie/facts/ |title=Marie Curie Facts |publisher=Nobelprize.org |accessdate=2 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190306042916/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/physics/1903/marie-curie/facts/ |archive-date=6 March 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="nytimes">{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/21/world/marie-curie-enshrined-in-pantheon.html |title=Marie Curie Enshrined in Pantheon |work=New York Times |date=21 April 1995 |accessdate=2 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120122093842/http://www.nytimes.com/1995/04/21/world/marie-curie-enshrined-in-pantheon.html |archive-date=22 January 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Princess Madeleine attends celebrations to mark anniversary of Marie Curie's second Nobel Prize">{{cite web|url=http://www.kungahuset.se/royalcourt/royalfamily/latestnews/news/princessmadeleineattendscelebrationstomarkanniversaryofmariecuriessecondnobelprize.5.70e7de59130bc8da54e800013910.html|title=Princess Madeleine attends celebrations to mark anniversary of Marie Curie's second Nobel Prize|publisher=Sveriges Kungahus|accessdate=23 February 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120105130841/http://www.kungahuset.se/royalcourt/royalfamily/latestnews/news/princessmadeleineattendscelebrationstomarkanniversaryofmariecuriessecondnobelprize.5.70e7de59130bc8da54e800013910.html|archive-date=5 January 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="The Discovery of Radioactivity">{{cite web |url=http://www.lbl.gov/abc/wallchart/chapters/03/4.html |title=The Discovery of Radioactivity |publisher=Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory |date=9 August 2000 |accessdate=2 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120814105054/http://www.lbl.gov/abc/wallchart/chapters/03/4.html |archive-date=14 August 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="amudeu">{{cite web|url=http://www.staff.amu.edu.pl/~zbzw/ph/sci/msc.htm|first=Zbigniew|last=Zwoliński|title=Science in Poland – Maria Sklodowska-Curie|publisher=Uniwersytet im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu|date=|accessdate=27 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120911201944/http://www.staff.amu.edu.pl/~zbzw/ph/sci/msc.htm|archive-date=11 September 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

<ref name="Barker2011">{{cite book|first=Dan|last=Barker|title=The Good Atheist: Living a Purpose-Filled Life Without God|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ruzL8ogol2sC&pg=PA171|date=2011|publisher=Ulysses Press|isbn=978-1-56975-846-5|page=171|access-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151102033101/https://books.google.com/books?id=ruzL8ogol2sC&pg=PA171|archive-date=2 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Borzendowski2009-36">{{cite book|first=Janice|last=Borzendowski|title=Sterling Biographies: Marie Curie: Mother of Modern Physics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmOaiSNrs0IC&pg=PT37|date=2009|publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.|isbn=978-1-4027-5318-3|page=36|access-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151130091338/https://books.google.com/books?id=wmOaiSNrs0IC&pg=PT37|archive-date=30 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Borzendowski2009-37">{{cite book|first=Janice|last=Borzendowski|title=Sterling Biographies: Marie Curie: Mother of Modern Physics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wmOaiSNrs0IC&pg=PT37|date=2009|publisher=Sterling Publishing Company, Inc.|isbn=978-1-4027-5318-3|page=37|access-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151130091338/https://books.google.com/books?id=wmOaiSNrs0IC&pg=PT37|archive-date=30 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="buffalo">{{cite web |url=http://www.buffalo.edu/news/8829 |title=Marie Curie Medallion Returns to UB Polish Collection By Way of eBay |publisher=News Center, University of Buffalo |date=11 September 2007 |accessdate=27 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121018100135/http://www.buffalo.edu/news/8829 |archive-date=18 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Chemistry International&nbsp;– Newsmagazine for IUPAC">{{cite web |url=http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2011/3301/3_boudia.html |title=Chemistry International&nbsp;– Newsmagazine for IUPAC |publisher=International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry |date=5 January 2011 |accessdate=7 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107222809/http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2011/3301/3_boudia.html |archive-date=7 November 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="cosm">{{cite web|url=http://www.cosmopolitanreview.com/articles/40-musings/342-2011-the-year-of-marie-sklodowska-curie |title=2011 – The Year of Marie Skłodowska-Curie |work=Cosmopolitanreview.com |date=3 July 2011 |accessdate=27 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814005026/http://cosmopolitanreview.com/articles/40-musings/342-2011-the-year-of-marie-sklodowska-curie |archivedate=14 August 2011 }}</ref>

<ref name="Council1997">{{cite book|author=Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (India)|title=Science reporter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GQDxAAAAMAAJ|year=1997|publisher=Council of Scientific & Industrial Research|page=117|accessdate=15 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160504115005/https://books.google.com/books?id=GQDxAAAAMAAJ|archive-date=4 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="curie">{{cite web|first=Institut |last=Curie |url=http://curie.fr/en/fondation/curie-museum |title=Curie museum &#124; Institut Curie |publisher=Curie.fr |date=17 December 2010 |accessdate=27 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120906061910/http://curie.fr/en/fondation/curie-museum |archivedate=6 September 2012 |df= }}</ref>

<ref name="CurieSheean1999">{{cite book|author1=Eve Curie|author2=Vincent Sheean|title=Madame Curie: A Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YOUMbHWaPr8C|date=1999|publisher=Turtleback Books|isbn=978-0-613-18127-3|page=389|access-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151126114144/https://books.google.com/books?id=YOUMbHWaPr8C|archive-date=26 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Curium">{{cite web |url=http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/podcast/interactive_periodic_table_transcripts/curium.asp |title=Curium |work=Chemistry in its element |publisher=Royal Society of Chemistry |accessdate=27 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160809004547/http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/podcast/Interactive_Periodic_Table_Transcripts/Curium.asp |archive-date=9 August 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

<ref name="IEA – reaktor Maria">{{cite web|url=http://www.cyf.gov.pl/historia_ang.html |title=IEA – reaktor Maria |publisher=Institute of Atomic Energy, Poland |date= |accessdate=27 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120319074606/http://www.cyf.gov.pl/historia_ang.html |archivedate=19 March 2012 }}</ref>

<ref name="Les-Palmes-de-M-Schutz – Trailer – Cast – Showtimes – NYTimes.com">{{cite web |url=https://movies.nytimes.com/movie/154828/Les-Palmes-de-M-Schutz/overview |title=Les-Palmes-de-M-Schutz (1997) |work=Movies |publisher=New York Times |date=5 June 2012 |accessdate=27 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121102151603/http://movies.nytimes.com/movie/154828/Les-Palmes-de-M-Schutz/overview |archive-date=2 November 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

<ref name="Letcher2003">{{cite book|first=Piers|last=Letcher|title=Eccentric France|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5_7IRHZGyzMC&pg=PA59|date=2003|publisher=Bradt Travel Guides|isbn=978-1-84162-068-8|page=59|access-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151120193332/https://books.google.com/books?id=5_7IRHZGyzMC&pg=PA59|archive-date=20 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="psb111">{{cite book|title=Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. 4|page=111|first=Tadeusz|last=Estreicher|authorlink=Tadeusz Estreicher|language=Polish|chapter=Curie, Maria ze Skłodowskich|year=1938|title-link=Polski słownik biograficzny}}</ref>

<ref name="psb112">{{cite book|title=Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. 4|page=112|first=Tadeusz|last=Estreicher|authorlink=Tadeusz Estreicher|language=Polish|chapter=Curie, Maria ze Skłodowskich|year=1938|title-link=Polski słownik biograficzny}}</ref>

<ref name="psb113">{{cite book|title=Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. 4|page=113|first=Tadeusz|last=Estreicher|authorlink=Tadeusz Estreicher|language=Polish|chapter=Curie, Maria ze Skłodowskich|year=1938|title-link=Polski słownik biograficzny}}</ref>

<ref name="psb114">{{cite book|title=Polski słownik biograficzny, vol. 4|page=114|first=Tadeusz|last=Estreicher|authorlink=Tadeusz Estreicher|language=Polish|chapter=Curie, Maria ze Skłodowskich|year=1938|title-link=Polski słownik biograficzny}}</ref>

<ref name="Quinn1996">{{cite book|first=Susan|last=Quinn|title=Marie Curie: A Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bteAVVwkeUIC&pg=PA176|date=1996|publisher=Da Capo Press|isbn=978-0-201-88794-5|pages=176, 203|access-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151031071144/https://books.google.com/books?id=bteAVVwkeUIC&pg=PA176|archive-date=31 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Radioactive: Marie and Pierre Curie, a Tale of Love and Fallout">{{cite web|url=http://www.cosmopolitanreview.com/articles/41-reviews/341-radioactive-a-review |title=Radioactive: Marie and Pierre Curie, a Tale of Love and Fallout |work=Cosmopolitanreview.com |date=3 July 2011 |accessdate=27 August 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814005116/http://cosmopolitanreview.com/articles/41-reviews/341-radioactive-a-review |archivedate=14 August 2011 }}</ref>

<ref name="ShipmanWilson2012">{{cite book|author1=James Shipman|author2=Jerry D. Wilson|author3=Aaron Todd|title=An Introduction to Physical Science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dxoM93eNPVEC&pg=PA263|date=2012|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-133-10409-4|page=263|access-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151127120120/https://books.google.com/books?id=dxoM93eNPVEC&pg=PA263|archive-date=27 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="Nobel Prize Facts">{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/nobelprize_facts.html |title=Nobel Prize Facts |publisher=Nobelprize.org |date=22 April 2011 |accessdate=7 September 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120901134144/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/nobelprize_facts.html |archivedate=1 September 2012 }}</ref>

<ref name="Pasachoff1996">{{cite book|first=Naomi|last=Pasachoff|title=Marie Curie:And the Science of Radioactivity: And the Science of Radioactivity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mVCTHbdstdQC&pg=PA93|date=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-509214-1|page=93|access-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151128164641/https://books.google.com/books?id=mVCTHbdstdQC&pg=PA93|archive-date=28 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

<ref name="undoubtedly">{{cite book |title=The History of Polish Literature  |last=Miłosz |first=Czesław |authorlink=Czesław Miłosz |year=1983 |publisher=University of California Press |location= |page=291 |isbn=978-0-520-04477-7|quote=Undoubtedly the most important novelist of [[Positivism in Poland|the period]] was Bolesław Prus...}}</ref>

<ref name="winners">{{cite web|url=http://www.fi.edu/winners/show_results.faw?award=CRESS|title=Franklin Laureate Database|work=The Franklin Institute Awards|publisher=The Franklin Institute|accessdate=11 September 2012|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://archive.is/20121212165125/http://www.fi.edu/winners/show_results.faw?award=CRESS|archivedate=12 December 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

}}
<!--
== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|author=Robert William Reid|title=Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p81XAAAAYAAJ|year=1974|publisher=New American Library|accessdate=15 March 2016|accessdate=15 March 2016|accessdate=15 March 2016|accessdate=15 March 2016|accessdate=15 March 2016|accessdate=15 March 2016|accessdate=15 March 2016|accessdate=15 March 2016|accessdate=15 March 2016|accessdate=15 March 2016|accessdate=15 March 2016}}
* Wojciech A. Wierzewski, "''Mazowieckie korzenie Marii''" ("Maria's Mazowsze Roots"), ''[[Gwiazda Polarna]]'' (Pole Star), a Polish-American biweekly, vol. 100, no. 13 (21 June 2008), pp.&nbsp;16–17. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090321193811/http://www.gwiazdapolarna.com/czytaj.php?nr=813&cat=4&art=04-01.txt |date=21 March 2009 }}
* L. Pearce Williams, "Curie, Pierre and Marie", ''[[Encyclopedia Americana]]'', [[Danbury, Connecticut]], [[Grolier]], Inc., 1986, vol. 8, pp.&nbsp;331–332.
* {{cite book|first=Barbara|last=Goldsmith|title=Obsessive Genius: The Inner World of Marie Curie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xuYSLk_tHfgC|year=2005|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|isbn=978-0-393-05137-7|accessdate=15 March 2016|accessdate=15 March 2016|accessdate=15 March 2016}}
{{refend}}
-->

== Further reading ==
=== Nonfiction ===
*{{cite book|last=Curie|first=Marie|authorlink=Marie Curie|title=The Discovery of Radium|year=1921|publisher=Vassar College|location=Poughkeepsie|title-link=s:The Discovery of Radium}}
*{{cite book|first=Eve|last=Curie|title=Madame Curie: A Biography|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abHJGxj8ZRwC|date=2001|publisher=Da Capo Press|isbn=978-0-306-81038-1}}
*{{Cite book|title=Polish Pioneers: Book of Prominent Poles|last=Dzienkiewicz, Marta|others=Rzezak, Joanna; Karski, Piotr; Monod-Gayraud, Agnes|year=2017|isbn=9788365341686|location=Warsaw|oclc=1060750234}}
*{{cite book|first=Françoise|last=Giroud|title=Marie Curie: A life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UqPuAAAAMAAJ|date=1986|publisher=Holmes & Meier|isbn=978-0-8419-0977-9}}  translated by [[Lydia Davis]].
* {{cite book|first=Teresa|last=Kaczorowska|title=Córka mazowieckich równin, czyli, Maria Skłodowska-Curie z Mazowsza|trans-title=Daughter of the Mazovian Plains: Maria Skłodowska–Curie of Mazowsze|language=Polish|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yTCkXwAACAAJ|year=2011|publisher=Związek Literatów Polskich, Oddział w Ciechanowie|accessdate=15 March 2016|isbn=978-83-89408-36-5}}
*{{cite book|last=Opfell|first=Olga S.|title=The Lady Laureates : Women Who Have Won the Nobel Prize|url=https://archive.org/details/ladylaureateswom0000opfe|url-access=registration|year=1978|publisher=Scarecrow Press|location=Metuchen, N.J.& London|isbn=978-0-8108-1161-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/ladylaureateswom0000opfe/page/147 147–164]}}
* {{cite book|first=Naomi|last=Pasachoff|title=Marie Curie and the Science of Radioactivity|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mVCTHbdstdQC|date=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-509214-1}}
*{{cite book|first=Susan|last=Quinn|title=Marie Curie: A Life|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bteAVVwkeUIC&pg=PA330|date=1996|publisher=Da Capo Press|isbn=978-0-201-88794-5}}
* {{cite book|first=Lauren|last=Redniss|title=Radioactive: Marie & Pierre Curie: A Tale of Love and Fallout|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HVL4QwAACAAJ|date=2010|publisher=HarperCollins|isbn=978-0-06-135132-7}}
*{{cite book|author=Wirten, Eva Hemmungs|title=Making Marie Curie: Intellectual Property and Celebrity Culture in an Age of Information|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0-bIoAEACAAJ&dq=Making+Marie+Curie|year=2015|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=978-0-226-23584-4|accessdate=15 March 2016|location=|pages=}}

=== Fiction ===
* {{Cite book |title=The Book about Blanche and Marie |first=Per |last=Olov Enquist |isbn=978-1-58567-668-2 |year=2006 |publisher=Overlook |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/bookaboutblanche00enqu }} A 2004 novel by [[Per Olov Enquist]] featuring Maria Skłodowska-Curie, [[neurologist]] [[Jean-Martin Charcot]], and his ''[[Salpêtrière]]'' patient "Blanche" ([[Marie Wittman]]). The English translation was published in 2006.

==External links==
{{Prone to spam|date=August 2020}}
{{Z148}}<!--     {{No more links}}

       Please be cautious adding more external links.

Wikipedia is not a collection of links and should not be used for advertising.

     Excessive or inappropriate links will be removed.

 See [[Wikipedia:External links]] and [[Wikipedia:Spam]] for details.

If there are already suitable links, propose additions or replacements on
the article's talk page.

-->
{{Commons category}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* {{Librivox author|id=1551}}
* {{OL author}}
* {{Gutenberg author|id=39174}}
* {{Internet Archive author|sopt=t}}
* {{PM20|FID=pe/003593}}

{{Navboxes|list=
{{1903 Nobel Prize winners}}
{{1911 Nobel Prize winners}}
{{Nobel Prize in Chemistry Laureates 1901–1925}}
{{Nobel Prize in Physics Laureates 1901–1925}}
{{People whose names are used in chemical element names}}
{{Scientists whose names are used as non SI units}}}}
{{Authority control}}

{{Good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Curie, Marie}}
[[Category:Marie Curie| ]]
[[Category:19th-century chemists]]
[[Category:19th-century French scientists]]
[[Category:19th-century physicists]]
[[Category:19th-century Polish scientists]]
[[Category:19th-century French women scientists]]
[[Category:20th-century chemists]]
[[Category:20th-century French scientists]]
[[Category:20th-century physicists]]
[[Category:20th-century Polish scientists]]
[[Category:20th-century French women scientists]]
[[Category:1867 births]]
[[Category:1934 deaths]]
[[Category:Burials at the Panthéon, Paris]]
[[Category:Congress Poland emigrants to France]]
[[Category:Corresponding Members of the Russian Academy of Sciences (1917–1925)]]
[[Category:Corresponding Members of the St Petersburg Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Corresponding Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Curie family|Marie]]
[[Category:Deaths from anemia]]
[[Category:Discoverers of chemical elements]]
[[Category:Disease-related deaths in France]]
[[Category:Experimental physicists]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Arts]]
[[Category:Former Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:French chemists]]
[[Category:French inventors]]
[[Category:French Nobel laureates]]
[[Category:French physicists]]
[[Category:French women chemists]]
[[Category:French women physicists]]
[[Category:Honorary Members of the USSR Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Inventors killed by own invention]]
[[Category:Légion d'honneur refusals]]
[[Category:Members of the Lwów Scientific Society]]
[[Category:Naturalized citizens of France]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Chemistry]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Physics]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates with multiple Nobel awards]]
[[Category:Nuclear chemists]]
[[Category:People associated with the International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation]]
[[Category:Scientists from Warsaw]]
[[Category:People from Warsaw Governorate]]
[[Category:Polish agnostics]]
[[Category:Polish atheists]]
[[Category:Polish chemists]]
[[Category:Polish governesses]]
[[Category:Polish inventors]]
[[Category:Polish Nobel laureates]]
[[Category:Polish physicists]]
[[Category:Polish women chemists]]
[[Category:Polish women physicists]]
[[Category:Radioactivity]]
[[Category:University of Paris alumni]]
[[Category:University of Paris faculty]]
[[Category:Victims of radiological poisoning]]
[[Category:Women inventors]]
[[Category:Women Nobel laureates]]

