search term: climate projections Wikipedia Page

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search term: LK Wikipedia Page

LK or lk may refer to:

search term: societal goals Wikipedia Page

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search term: Working Groups Wikipedia Page

A working group is a group of experts working together to achieve specified goals. Such groups are domain-specific and focus on discussion or activity around a specific subject area. The term can sometimes refer to an interdisciplinary collaboration of researchers, often from more than one organization, working on new activities that would be difficult to sustain under traditional funding mechanisms (e.g., federal agencies). Working groups are variously also called task groups, workgroups, technical advisory groups, working parties, or task forces.

A U.S. House of Representatives working group on addiction (2019)

search term: IPCC AR5 Wikipedia Page

The Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the fifth in a series of such reports and was completed in 2014.[1] As had been the case in the past, the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports, in particular representatives from governments. Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel.[2][3] Projections in AR5 are based on "Representative Concentration Pathways" (RCPs).[4] The RCPs are consistent with a wide range of possible changes in future anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Projected changes in global mean surface temperature and sea level are given in the main RCP article.

Average IPCC AR5 climate model projections for 2081–2100 relative to 1986–2005, under low and high emission scenarios

search term: risk framing Wikipedia Page

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search term: incremental adaptation Wikipedia Page

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search term: distributive justice Wikipedia Page

Distributive justice concerns the socially just allocation of resources, goods, opportunity in a society. It is concerned with how to allocate resources fairly among members of a society, taking into account factors such as wealth, income, and social status. Often contrasted with just process and formal equal opportunity, distributive justice concentrates on outcomes (substantive equality). This subject has been given considerable attention in philosophy and the social sciences. Theorists have developed widely different conceptions of distributive justice. These have contributed to debates around the arrangement of social, political and economic institutions to promote the just distribution of benefits and burdens within a society. Most contemporary theories of distributive justice rest on the precondition of material scarcity. From that precondition arises the need for principles to resolve competing interest and claims concerning a just or at least morally preferable distribution of scarce resources.[1]

search term: social progress Wikipedia Page

Progress is movement towards a perceived refined, improved, or otherwise desired state.[1][2][3] It is central to the philosophy of progressivism, which interprets progress as the set of advancements in technology, science, and social organization efficiency – the latter being generally achieved through direct societal action, as in social enterprise or through activism, but being also attainable through natural sociocultural evolution – that progressivism holds all human societies should strive towards.

Woman's Progress, May 1895

search term: human societies Wikipedia Page

A society (/səˈsaɪəti/) is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction or a large social group sharing the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant cultural expectations. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum total of such relationships among its constituent members.

Ant social ethology: Ants are eusocial insects. The social group enables its members to benefit in ways that would not otherwise be possible on an individual basis.

search term: expert judgement Wikipedia Page

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search term: cultures Wikipedia Page

Culture (/ˈkʌltʃər/ KUL-chər) is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, attitudes, and habits of the individuals in these groups.[1] Culture often originates from or is attributed to a specific region or location.

Pygmy music has been polyphonic well before their discovery by non-African explorers of the Baka, Aka, Efe, and other foragers of the Central African forests, in the 1200s, which is at least 200 years before polyphony developed in Europe. Note the multiple lines of singers and dancers. The motifs are independent, with theme and variation interweaving.[3] This type of music is thought to be the first expression of polyphony in world music.

search term: procedural justice Wikipedia Page

Procedural justice is the idea of fairness in the processes that resolve disputes and allocate resources. One aspect of procedural justice is related to discussions of the administration of justice and legal proceedings. This sense of procedural justice is connected to due process (U.S.), fundamental justice (Canada), procedural fairness (Australia), and natural justice (other Common law jurisdictions), but the idea of procedural justice can also be applied to nonlegal contexts in which some process is employed to resolve conflict or divide benefits or burdens. Aspects of procedural justice are an area of study in social psychology, sociology, and organizational psychology.[1][2]

search term: WGII AR6 Wikipedia Page

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search term: scientific literature Wikipedia Page

Scientific literature encompasses a vast body of academic papers that spans various disciplines within the natural and social sciences. It primarily consists of academic papers that present original empirical research and theoretical contributions. These papers serve as essential sources of knowledge and are commonly referred to simply as "the literature" within specific research fields.

The frontispiece for some early scientific literature published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society

search term: storylines Wikipedia Page

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search term: adaptation action Wikipedia Page

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search term: adaptation research Wikipedia Page

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search term: University Wikipedia Page

A university (from Latin universitas 'a whole') is an institution of tertiary education and research which awards academic degrees in several academic disciplines.[1] University is derived from the Latin phrase universitas magistrorum et scholarium, which roughly means "community of teachers and scholars".[2] Universities typically offer both undergraduate and postgraduate programs.

Alma Mater by Daniel Chester French, Columbia University. The alma mater, meaning "nourishing mother" in Latin, is one of the most enduring symbols of the university. The phrase is associated with the University of Bologna, Italy, founded in 1088.

search term: AR6 Wikipedia Page

The Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) of the United Nations (UN) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the sixth in a series of reports which assess the available scientific information on climate change. Three Working Groups (WGI, II, and III) covered the following topics: The Physical Science Basis (WGI); Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (WGII); Mitigation of Climate Change (WGIII). Of these, the first study was published in 2021, the second report February 2022, and the third in April 2022. The final synthesis report was finished in March 2023. It includes a summary for policymakers and was the basis for the 2023 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP28) in Dubai.[1]

Variation of annual observed global average temperature (1850–2019) relative to the 1850–1900 average (blue line), as reported in the Summary for Policymakers (SPM)[19]

search term: iterative risk management Wikipedia Page

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search term: risk assessment Wikipedia Page

Risk assessment is a process for identifying hazards, potential (future) events which may negatively impact on individuals, assets, and/or the environment because of those hazards, their likelihood and consequences, and actions which can mitigate these effects. The output from such a process may also be called a risk assessment. Hazard analysis forms the first stage of a risk assessment process. Judgments "on the tolerability of the risk on the basis of a risk analysis" (i.e. risk evaluation) also form part of the process.[1][2] The results of a risk assessment process may be expressed in a quantitative or qualitative fashion.[3]

Risk assessment and risk management Venn diagram

search term: Intergovernmental Panel of Climate Change Wikipedia Page

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is an intergovernmental body of the United Nations. Its job is to "provide governments at all levels with scientific information that they can use to develop climate policies".[1] The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) set up the IPCC in 1988. The United Nations endorsed the creation of the IPCC later that year.[2] It has a secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland, hosted by the WMO. It has 195 member states who govern the IPCC.[3] The member states elect a bureau of scientists to serve through an assessment cycle. A cycle is usually six to seven years. The bureau selects experts in their fields to prepare IPCC reports.[4] There is a formal nomination process by governments and observer organizations to find these experts. The IPCC has three working groups and a task force, which carry out its scientific work.[4]

search term: ethics Wikipedia Page

Ethics is the philosophical study of moral phenomena. Also called moral philosophy, it investigates normative questions about what people ought to do or which behavior is morally right. Its main branches include normative ethics, applied ethics, and metaethics.

According to Aristotle, how to lead a good life is one of the central questions of ethics.[1]

search term: Oxford University Press Wikipedia Page

Oxford University Press (OUP) is the publishing house of the University of Oxford. It is the largest university press in the world. Its first book was printed in Oxford in 1478, with the Press officially granted the legal right to print books by decree in 1586.[2] It is the second-oldest university press after Cambridge University Press, which was founded in 1534.[3][4][5]

search term: transformational adaptation Wikipedia Page

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search term: ecological systems Wikipedia Page

An ecosystem (or ecological system) is a system formed by organisms in interaction with their environment.[2]: 458 The biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.

Rainforest ecosystems are rich in biodiversity. This is the Gambia River in Senegal's Niokolo-Koba National Park.

search term: IK Wikipedia Page

IK or Ik may refer to:

search term: UNFCCC Wikipedia Page

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is the UN process for negotiating an agreement to limit dangerous climate change. It is an international treaty among countries to combat "dangerous human interference with the climate system". The main way to do this is limiting the increase in greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.[1] It was signed in 1992 by 154 states at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), informally known as the Earth Summit, held in Rio de Janeiro. The treaty entered into force on 21 March 1994.[2] "UNFCCC" is also the name of the Secretariat charged with supporting the operation of the convention, with offices on the UN Campus in Bonn, Germany.[3]

search term: attribution Wikipedia Page

Attribution may refer to:

search term: solution space Wikipedia Page

In mathematical optimization and computer science, a feasible region, feasible set, or solution space is the set of all possible points (sets of values of the choice variables) of an optimization problem that satisfy the problem's constraints, potentially including inequalities, equalities, and integer constraints.[1] This is the initial set of candidate solutions to the problem, before the set of candidates has been narrowed down.

A problem with five linear constraints (in blue, including the non-negativity constraints). In the absence of integer constraints the feasible set is the entire region bounded by blue, but with integer constraints it is the set of red dots.

search term: adaptive actions Wikipedia Page

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search term: IPCC Wikipedia Page

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is an intergovernmental body of the United Nations. Its job is to "provide governments at all levels with scientific information that they can use to develop climate policies".[1] The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) set up the IPCC in 1988. The United Nations endorsed the creation of the IPCC later that year.[2] It has a secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland, hosted by the WMO. It has 195 member states who govern the IPCC.[3] The member states elect a bureau of scientists to serve through an assessment cycle. A cycle is usually six to seven years. The bureau selects experts in their fields to prepare IPCC reports.[4] There is a formal nomination process by governments and observer organizations to find these experts. The IPCC has three working groups and a task force, which carry out its scientific work.[4]

search term: equity Wikipedia Page

The word equity is also used in the names of the following companies and organizations:

search term: climate justice Wikipedia Page

Climate justice is a type of environmental justice[1] that focuses on the unequal impacts of climate change on marginalized or otherwise vulnerable populations.[2] Climate justice seeks to achieve an equitable distribution of both the burdens of climate change and the efforts to mitigate climate change through advocacy and policy change.[3][4] The economic burden of climate change mitigation is estimated by some at around 1% to 2% of GDP.[5][6] Climate justice examines concepts such as equality, human rights, collective rights, justice and the historical responsibilities for climate change.[7]

Fridays for Future demonstration in Berlin in September 2021 with the slogan "fight for climate justice"

search term: politics Wikipedia Page

Politics (from Ancient Greek πολιτικά (politiká) 'affairs of the cities') is the set of activities that are associated with making decisions in groups, or other forms of power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of status or resources. The branch of social science that studies politics and government is referred to as political science.

The opening of the 79th session of the United Nations General Assembly

search term: justice Wikipedia Page

In its broadest sense, justice is the idea that individuals should be treated fairly. According to the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, the most plausible candidate for a core definition comes from the Institutes of Justinian, a 6th-century codification of Roman law, where justice is defined as "the constant and perpetual will to render to each his due".[1]

Evidence about the Nazi Ernst Kaltenbrunner's war crimes is presented at the Nuremberg trials.

search term: Sixth Assessment Report Wikipedia Page

The Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) of the United Nations (UN) Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the sixth in a series of reports which assess the available scientific information on climate change. Three Working Groups (WGI, II, and III) covered the following topics: The Physical Science Basis (WGI); Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability (WGII); Mitigation of Climate Change (WGIII). Of these, the first study was published in 2021, the second report February 2022, and the third in April 2022. The final synthesis report was finished in March 2023. It includes a summary for policymakers and was the basis for the 2023 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP28) in Dubai.[1]

Variation of annual observed global average temperature (1850–2019) relative to the 1850–1900 average (blue line), as reported in the Summary for Policymakers (SPM)[19]

search term: natural systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: Resilience Wikipedia Page

Resilience, resilient, or resiliency may refer to:

search term: GWL Wikipedia Page

search term: climate change risks Wikipedia Page

Climate risk is the potential for problems for societies or ecosystems from the impacts of climate change.[2] The assessment of climate risk is based on formal analysis of the consequences, likelihoods and responses to these impacts. Societal constraints can also shape adaptation options.[3][4] There are different values and preferences around risk, resulting in differences of risk perception.[5]: 149

The risk equation shows that climate risk is a product of hazard, exposure, and climate change vulnerability (where 'x' represents interaction between the components).[1]

search term: burned area Wikipedia Page

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search term: Global change biology Wikipedia Page

Global Change Biology is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on the interface between biological systems and all aspects of environmental change that affect a substantial part of the globe[1] including climate change, global warming, land use change, invasive species, urbanization, wildfire, and greenhouse gases. The editor-in-chief is Stephen P. Long,[2] environmental plant physiologist, Fellow of the Royal Society and member of the National Academy of Sciences (University of Illinois and Lancaster University).

search term: LULCC Wikipedia Page

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search term: rivers Wikipedia Page

A river is a natural stream of fresh water that flows on land or inside caves towards another body of water at a lower elevation, such as an ocean, lake, or another river. A river may run dry before reaching the end of its course if it runs out of water, or only flow during certain seasons. Rivers are regulated by the water cycle, the processes by which water moves around the Earth. Water first enters rivers through precipitation, whether from rainfall, the runoff of water down a slope, the melting of glaciers or snow, or seepage from aquifers beneath the surface of the Earth.

A boat floats on the Mekong in Laos

search term: boreal forests Wikipedia Page

Taiga or tayga (/ˈtaɪɡə/ TY-gə; Russian: тайга́,
IPA: [tɐjˈɡa]), also known as boreal forest or snow forest, is a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines, spruces, and larches. The taiga, or boreal forest, is the world's largest land biome.[1] In North America, it covers most of inland Canada, Alaska, and parts of the northern contiguous United States.[2] In Eurasia, it covers most of Sweden, Finland, much of Russia from Karelia in the west to the Pacific Ocean (including much of Siberia), much of Norway and Estonia, some of the Scottish Highlands,[citation needed] some lowland/coastal areas of Iceland, and areas of northern Kazakhstan, northern Mongolia, and northern Japan (on the island of Hokkaido).[3]

search term: amphibians Wikipedia Page

Amphibians are ectothermic, anamniotic, four-limbed vertebrate animals that constitute the class Amphibia. In its broadest sense, it is a paraphyletic group encompassing all tetrapods, but excluding the amniotes (tetrapods with an amniotic membrane, such as modern reptiles, birds and mammals). All extant (living) amphibians belong to the monophyletic subclass Lissamphibia, with three living orders: Anura (frogs and toads), Urodela (salamanders), and Gymnophiona (caecilians). Evolved to be mostly semiaquatic, amphibians have adapted to inhabit a wide variety of habitats, with most species living in freshwater, wetland or terrestrial ecosystems (such as riparian woodland, fossorial and even arboreal habitats). Their life cycle typically starts out as aquatic larvae with gills known as tadpoles, but some species have developed behavioural adaptations to bypass this.

Many amphibians—like this Ceratophrys cranwelli—exhibit biofluorescence.[4]

search term: Forest Ecology and Management Wikipedia Page

Forest Ecology and Management is a semimonthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering forest ecology and the management of forest resources. The journal publishes research manuscripts that report results of original research, review articles, and book reviews.[1] Forestry-related topics are covered that apply biological and social knowledge to address problems encountered in forest management and conservation.[2]

search term: lakes Wikipedia Page

A lake is often a naturally occurring, relatively large and fixed body of water on or near the Earth's surface. It is localized in a basin or interconnected basins surrounded by dry land.[1] Lakes lie completely on land and are separate from the ocean, although they may be connected with the ocean by rivers. Lakes, as with other bodies of water, are part of the water cycle, the processes by which water moves around the Earth. Most lakes are fresh water and account for almost all the world's surface freshwater, but some are salt lakes with salinities even higher than that of seawater. Lakes vary significantly in surface area and volume of water.

Lake Idro, an Italian prealpine lake of glacial origin situated largely within the province of Brescia (Lombardy) and in part in Trentino.

search term: tundra Wikipedia Page

In physical geography, a tundra (/ˈtʌndrə, ˈtʊn-/) is a type of biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid temperatures and short growing seasons. There are three regions and associated types of tundra: Arctic,[2] Alpine,[2] and Antarctic.[3]

search term: fire suppression Wikipedia Page

Fire suppression may refer to:

search term: extinction risk Wikipedia Page

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search term: fire frequency Wikipedia Page

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search term: ecosystem integrity Wikipedia Page

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search term: refugia Wikipedia Page

Refugium, plural refugia, the Latin for "refuge" or "hideaway", may refer to:

search term: agricultural expansion Wikipedia Page

Agricultural expansion describes the growth of agricultural land (arable land, pastures, etc.) especially in the 20th and 21st centuries.

Deforestation for the purpose of farming in Brazil.

search term: Arctic permafrost Wikipedia Page

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search term: ecosystem functioning Wikipedia Page

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search term: freshwater systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: Neglected Tropical Diseases Wikipedia Page

Neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) are a diverse group of tropical infections that are common in low-income populations in developing regions of Africa, Asia, and the Americas.[2] They are caused by a variety of pathogens, such as viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and parasitic worms (helminths). These diseases are contrasted with the "big three" infectious diseases (HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria), which generally receive greater treatment and research funding.[3] In sub-Saharan Africa, the effect of neglected tropical diseases as a group is comparable to that of malaria and tuberculosis.[4] NTD co-infection can also make HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis more deadly.[5]

search term: Applied Ecology Wikipedia Page

Applied ecology is a sub-field within ecology that considers the application of the science of ecology to real-world (usually management) questions. It is also described as a scientific field that focuses on the application of concepts, theories, models, or methods of fundamental ecology to environmental problems.[1]

search term: Conservation Biology Wikipedia Page

Conservation biology is the study of the conservation of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions.[1][2][3] It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences, and the practice of natural resource management.[4][5][page needed][6][7]

2016 conservation indicator which includes the following indicators: marine protected areas, terrestrial biome protection (global and national), and species protection (global and national)

search term: Infectious Diseases Wikipedia Page

An infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce.[1] An infectious disease, also known as a transmissible disease or communicable disease, is an illness resulting from an infection.

search term: The Wikipedia Page

The is a grammatical article in English, denoting nouns that are already or about to be mentioned, under discussion, implied or otherwise presumed familiar to listeners, readers, or speakers. It is the definite article in English. The is the most frequently used word in the English language; studies and analyses of texts have found it to account for seven percent of all printed English-language words.[1] It is derived from gendered articles in Old English which combined in Middle English and now has a single form used with nouns of any gender.[a] The word can be used with both singular and plural nouns, and with a noun that starts with any letter. This is different from many other languages, which have different forms of the definite article for different genders or numbers.[b]

"... by the grace that god put ..." (extract from the The Book of Margery Kempe)

search term: Freshwater Biology Wikipedia Page

Freshwater biology is the scientific biological study of freshwater ecosystems and is a branch of limnology. This field seeks to understand the relationships between living organisms in their physical environment. These physical environments may include rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, reservoirs, or wetlands.[1] Knowledge from this discipline is also widely used in industrial processes to make use of biological processes involved with sewage treatment[2] and water purification. Water presence and flow is an essential aspect to species distribution and influences when and where species interact in freshwater environments.[1]

Oxsjön, a lake in Sweden. Freshwater biology focuses on environments like lakes.

search term: biomes Wikipedia Page

A biome (/ˈbaɪ.oʊm/, BYE-ome) is a distinct geographical region with specific climate, vegetation, animal life, and an ecosystem. It consists of a biological community that has formed in response to its physical environment and regional climate.[1] In 1935, Tansley added the climatic and soil aspects to the idea, calling it ecosystem.[2][3] The International Biological Program (1964–74) projects popularized the concept of biome.[4]

One way of mapping terrestrial biomes around the world (doesn't include the Antarctic Tundra)

search term: streams Wikipedia Page

A stream is a continuous body of surface water[1] flowing within the bed and banks of a channel. Depending on its location or certain characteristics, a stream may be referred to by a variety of local or regional names. Long, large streams are usually called rivers, while smaller, less voluminous and more intermittent streams are known, amongst others, as brook, creek, rivulet, rill, run, tributary, feeder, freshet, narrow river, and streamlet.[2]

Rocky stream in Italy

search term: wild animals Wikipedia Page

Wildlife refers to undomesticated animals and uncultivated plant species which can exist in their natural habitat, but has come to include all organisms that grow or live wild in an area without being introduced by humans. Wildlife was also synonymous to game, birds and mammals hunted for sport. Wildlife can be found in all ecosystems, both wild and most developed urban areas, forming distinct groups. While the term in popular culture usually refers to animals that are untouched by human existence, most scientists agree that much wildlife is affected by humans. Some wildlife threaten human safety, health, property and quality of life, but many wild animals have value to humans, whether economic, educational, or sentimental.

A lion (Panthera leo). Lions are an example of charismatic megafauna, a group of wildlife species that are especially popular in human culture.

search term: Arctic tundra Wikipedia Page

In physical geography, a tundra (/ˈtʌndrə, ˈtʊn-/) is a type of biome where tree growth is hindered by frigid temperatures and short growing seasons. There are three regions and associated types of tundra: Arctic,[2] Alpine,[2] and Antarctic.[3]

search term: carbon sink Wikipedia Page

A carbon sink is a natural or artificial carbon sequestration process that "removes a greenhouse gas, an aerosol or a precursor of a greenhouse gas from the atmosphere".[2]: 2249 These sinks form an important part of the natural carbon cycle. An overarching term is carbon pool, which is all the places where carbon on Earth can be, i.e. the atmosphere, oceans, soil, florae, fossil fuel reservoirs and so forth. A carbon sink is a type of carbon pool that has the capability to take up more carbon from the atmosphere than it releases.

Carbon sinks (green bars on the right) remove carbon from the atmosphere, whereas carbon sources (greenhouse gas emissions) (grey bars on the left) add them. Since the 1850s, there are more carbon sources than sinks and therefore the carbon dioxide in Earth's atmosphere is rising.[1]

search term: Protected areas Wikipedia Page

Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural or cultural values. Protected areas are those areas in which human presence or the exploitation of natural resources (e.g. firewood, non-timber forest products, water, ...) is limited.[1]

World map with percentage of each country under protection (2005 data)
0–3.9% of the country is protected
3.9–11.3% protected
11.3–22.7% protected
22.7–41.8% protected
41.8–72.3% protected
No data

search term: Freshwater Ecosystems Wikipedia Page

Freshwater ecosystems are a subset of Earth's aquatic ecosystems that include the biological communities inhabiting freshwater waterbodies such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, springs, bogs, and wetlands.[1] They can be contrasted with marine ecosystems, which have a much higher salinity. Freshwater habitats can be classified by different factors, including temperature, light penetration, nutrients, and vegetation.

Freshwater ecosystem

search term: woody encroachment Wikipedia Page

Woody plant encroachment (also called woody encroachment, bush encroachment, shrub encroachment, shrubification, woody plant proliferation, or bush thickening) is a natural phenomenon characterised by the area expansion and density increase of woody plants, bushes and shrubs, at the expense of the herbaceous layer, grasses and forbs. It refers to the expansion of native plants and not the spread of alien invasive species.[1] Woody encroachment is observed across different ecosystems and with different characteristics and intensities globally. It predominantly occurs in grasslands, savannas and woodlands and can cause regime shifts from open grasslands and savannas to closed woodlands.[2]

View of bush encroached land at the Waterberg Plateau Park in Otjozondjupa Region, Namibia

search term: insect outbreaks Wikipedia Page

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search term: connectivity Wikipedia Page

Connectivity may refer to:

search term: fire risk Wikipedia Page

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search term: LUC Wikipedia Page

Luc or LUC may refer to:

search term: butterflies Wikipedia Page

Butterflies are winged insects from the lepidopteran superfamily Papilionoidea, characterised by large, often brightly coloured wings that often fold together when at rest, and a conspicuous, fluttering flight. The oldest butterfly fossils have been dated to the Paleocene, about 56 million years ago, though molecular evidence suggests that they likely originated in the Cretaceous.[1]

search term: tropical peatlands Wikipedia Page

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search term: fire regimes Wikipedia Page

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search term: Restoration Ecology Wikipedia Page

Ecological restoration, or ecosystem restoration, is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, destroyed[1] or transformed.[2] It is distinct from conservation in that it attempts to retroactively repair already damaged ecosystems rather than take preventative measures.[3][4] Ecological restoration can help to reverse biodiversity loss, combat climate change, support the provision of ecosystem services and support local economies.[5] The United Nations has named 2021–2030 the Decade on Ecosystem Restoration.[6]

Recently constructed wetland regeneration in Australia, on a site previously used for agriculture

search term: ecology Wikipedia Page

Ecology (from Ancient Greek οἶκος (oîkos) 'house' and -λογία (-logía) 'study of')[A] is the natural science of the relationships among living organisms and their environment. Ecology considers organisms at the individual, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere levels. Ecology overlaps with the closely related sciences of biogeography, evolutionary biology, genetics, ethology, and natural history.

search term: Parasitology Wikipedia Page

Parasitology is the study of parasites, their hosts, and the relationship between them. As a biological discipline, the scope of parasitology is not determined by the organism or environment in question but by their way of life. This means it forms a synthesis of other disciplines, and draws on techniques from fields such as cell biology, bioinformatics, biochemistry, molecular biology, immunology, genetics, evolution and ecology.

Adult black fly (Simulium yahense) with Onchocerca volvulus emerging from the insect's antenna. The parasite is responsible for the disease known as river blindness in Africa. Sample was chemically fixed and critical point dried, then observed using conventional scanning electron microscopy. Magnified 100×.

search term: vectors Wikipedia Page

Vector most often refers to:

search term: population extinctions Wikipedia Page

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search term: wild species Wikipedia Page

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search term: water temperature Wikipedia Page

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search term: temperate regions Wikipedia Page

In geography, the temperate climates of Earth occur in the middle latitudes (approximately 23.5° to 66.5° N/S of the Equator), which span between the tropics and the polar regions of Earth.[1] These zones generally have wider temperature ranges throughout the year and more distinct seasonal changes compared to tropical climates, where such variations are often small; they usually differ only in the amount of precipitation.[2]

A Köppen–Geiger climate map showing temperate climates for 1991–2020

search term: disease incidence Wikipedia Page

In epidemiology, incidence reflects the number of new cases of a given medical condition in a population within a specified period of time.

Evolution of weekly incidence rates of Dengue fever in Cambodia from January 2002 to December 2008

search term: tropical ecosystems Wikipedia Page

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search term: livestock grazing Wikipedia Page

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search term: CO2 fertilisation Wikipedia Page

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search term: fire activity Wikipedia Page

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search term: temperate forests Wikipedia Page

A temperate forest is a forest found between the tropical and boreal regions, located in the temperate zone. It is the second largest terrestrial biome, covering 25%[1] of the world's forest area, only behind the boreal forest, which covers about 33%. These forests cover both hemispheres at latitudes ranging from 25 to 50 degrees,[2] wrapping the planet in a belt similar to that of the boreal forest. Due to its large size spanning several continents, there are several main types: deciduous, coniferous, mixed forest, and rainforest.

Areas of the globe with a temperate broadleaf and mixed forest biome, according to the WWF

search term: vegetation cover Wikipedia Page

Vegetation is an assemblage of plants and the ground cover they provide.[2] It is a general term, without specific reference to particular taxa, life forms, structure, spatial extent, or any other specific botanical or geographic characteristics. It is broader than the term flora which refers to species composition. Perhaps the closest synonym is plant community, but "vegetation" can, and often does, refer to a wider range of spatial scales than that term does, including scales as large as the global. Primeval redwood forests, coastal mangrove stands, sphagnum bogs, desert soil crusts, roadside weed patches, wheat fields, cultivated gardens and lawns; all are encompassed by the term "vegetation".

These maps show a scale, or index of greenness, based on several factors: the number and type of plants, leafiness, and plant health. Where foliage is dense and plants are growing quickly, the index is high, represented in dark green. Regions with sparse vegetation and a low vegetation index are shown in tan. Based on measurements from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA's Terra satellite. Areas where there is no data are gray.[1]

search term: Mediterranean Europe Wikipedia Page

Southern Europe[1] is also known as Mediterranean Europe, as its geography is marked by the Mediterranean Sea. Definitions of southern Europe include some or all of these countries and regions: Albania, Andorra, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria,[note 1] Croatia, Cyprus,[note 2] Gibraltar,[note 3] Greece,[note 4] Italy,[note 5] Kosovo, Malta,[note 6] Monaco,[note 7] Montenegro, North Macedonia, Portugal, San Marino, Serbia, Slovenia, southern France,[note 8] southern Romania,[note 9] Spain, Ticino (Switzerland),[note 10] Turkey,[note 11] and Vatican City.[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13]

The geographical and ethno-cultural borders of southern Europe are the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Balkan Mountains to the north and the Mediterranean Sea to the south.

search term: SDMs Wikipedia Page

search term: Geophysical Research Wikipedia Page

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search term: Biological Wikipedia Page

Biology is the scientific study of life and living organisms. It is a broad natural science that encompasses a wide range of fields and unifying principles that explain the structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution of life. Central to biology are five fundamental themes: the cell as the basic unit of life, genes and heredity as the basis of inheritance, evolution as the driver of biological diversity, energy transformation for sustaining life processes, and the maintenance of internal stability (homeostasis).[1][2]

Drawing of what now are called Schwann cells by one of the founders of cell theory, Theodor Schwann.

search term: biome shifts Wikipedia Page

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search term: woody vegetation Wikipedia Page

A woody plant is a plant that produces wood as its structural tissue and thus has a hard stem.[1] In cold climates, woody plants further survive winter or dry season above ground, as opposed to herbaceous plants that die back to the ground until spring.[2]

A section of rosemary stem, an example of a woody plant, showing a typical wood structure

search term: recreation Wikipedia Page

Recreation is an activity of leisure, leisure being discretionary time.[1] The "need to do something for recreation" is an essential element of human biology and psychology.[2] Recreational activities are often done for enjoyment, amusement, or pleasure and are considered to be "fun".

Surfing, a form of recreation

search term: animal species Wikipedia Page

A species (pl.species) is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. It can be defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. Other ways of defining species include their karyotype, DNA sequence, morphology, behaviour, or ecological niche. In addition, palaeontologists use the concept of the chronospecies since fossil reproduction cannot be examined. The most recent rigorous estimate for the total number of species of eukaryotes is between 8 and 8.7 million.[1][2][3] About 14% of these had been described by 2011.[3] All species (except viruses) are given a two-part name, a "binomen". The first part of a binomen is the name of a genus to which the species belongs. The second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet (in botanical nomenclature, also sometimes in zoological nomenclature). For example, Boa constrictor is one of the species of the genus Boa, with constrictor being the specific name.

The hierarchy of biological classification's eight major taxonomic ranks. A genus contains one or more species. Minor intermediate ranks are not shown.

search term: albedo Wikipedia Page

Albedo (/ælˈbiːdoʊ/ ⓘ al-BEE-doh; from Latin albedo 'whiteness') is the fraction of sunlight that is diffusely reflected by a body. It is measured on a scale from 0 (corresponding to a black body that absorbs all incident radiation) to 1 (corresponding to a body that reflects all incident radiation). Surface albedo is defined as the ratio of radiosity Je to the irradiance Ee (flux per unit area) received by a surface.[2] The proportion reflected is not only determined by properties of the surface itself, but also by the spectral and angular distribution of solar radiation reaching the Earth's surface.[3] These factors vary with atmospheric composition, geographic location, and time (see position of the Sun).

Albedo change in Greenland: the map shows the difference between the amount of sunlight Greenland reflected in the summer of 2011 versus the average percent it reflected between 2000 and 2006. Some areas reflect close to 20 percent less light than a decade ago.[1]

search term: dispersal Wikipedia Page

Dispersal may refer to:

search term: habitat fragmentation Wikipedia Page

Habitat fragmentation describes the emergence of discontinuities (fragmentation) in an organism's preferred environment (habitat), causing population fragmentation and ecosystem decay.[2] Causes of habitat fragmentation include geological processes that slowly alter the layout of the physical environment[3] (suspected of being one of the major causes of speciation[3]), and human activity such as land conversion, which can alter the environment much faster and causes the population fluctuation of many species. More specifically, habitat fragmentation is a process by which large and contiguous habitats get divided into smaller, isolated patches of habitats.[4][5]

Predicted fragmentation and destruction of Great Ape habitat in Central Africa, from the GLOBIO[1] and GRASP projects in 2002. Areas shown in black and red delineate areas of severe and moderate habitat loss, respectively.

search term: maximum temperatures Wikipedia Page

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search term: river systems Wikipedia Page

In geomorphology, drainage systems, also known as river systems, are the patterns formed by the streams, rivers, and lakes in a particular drainage basin. They are governed by the topography of land, whether a particular region is dominated by hard or soft rocks, and the gradient of the land. Geomorphologists and hydrologists often view streams as part of drainage basins (and sub-basins). This is the topographic region from which a stream receives runoff, throughflow, and its saturated equivalent, groundwater flow. The number, size, and shape of the drainage basins varies and the larger and more detailed the topographic map, the more information is available.[1]

Dendritic drainage: the Yarlung Tsangpo River, Tibet, seen from space: snow cover has melted in the valley system.

search term: bark beetles Wikipedia Page

Cortylini
Cryphalini
Crypturgini
Dryocoetini
Hylastini
Hylesinini
Hylurgini
Hypoborini
Ipini
Phloeosinini
Phloeotribini
Polygraphini
Scolytini
Scolytoplatypodini
Taphrorychini
Thamnurgini
Tomicini
Xyleborini
Xyloterini

search term: body size Wikipedia Page

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search term: disease risk Wikipedia Page

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search term: timber harvesting Wikipedia Page

Logging is the process of cutting, processing, and moving trees to a location for transport. It may include skidding, on-site processing, and loading of trees or logs onto trucks[1] or skeleton cars. In forestry, the term logging is sometimes used narrowly to describe the logistics of moving wood from the stump to somewhere outside the forest, usually a sawmill or a lumber yard. In common usage, however, the term may cover a range of forestry or silviculture activities.

A Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus) being felled using springboards, c.1884–1917, Australia

search term: woody cover Wikipedia Page

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search term: western North America Wikipedia Page

Western North America is the western edge of the North American continent that borders the Pacific Ocean. It consists of Alaska at the farthest north, down through the western Canadian province of British Columbia, the western U.S. states of Washington, Oregon, and California, and then Mexico farthest south. The region consists of one long continuous mountain range formed over the last 350 million years through the movement of tectonic plates, as the large Pacific plate submerged under the North American plate through the process called subduction.[1]

Satellite image of the United States portion of Western North America

search term: woody plant encroachment Wikipedia Page

Woody plant encroachment (also called woody encroachment, bush encroachment, shrub encroachment, shrubification, woody plant proliferation, or bush thickening) is a natural phenomenon characterised by the area expansion and density increase of woody plants, bushes and shrubs, at the expense of the herbaceous layer, grasses and forbs. It refers to the expansion of native plants and not the spread of alien invasive species.[1] Woody encroachment is observed across different ecosystems and with different characteristics and intensities globally. It predominantly occurs in grasslands, savannas and woodlands and can cause regime shifts from open grasslands and savannas to closed woodlands.[2]

View of bush encroached land at the Waterberg Plateau Park in Otjozondjupa Region, Namibia

search term: Durban Wikipedia Page

Durban (/ˈdɜːrbən/ DUR-bən; Zulu: eThekwini, from itheku meaning "bay, lagoon")[a] is the third-most populous city in South Africa, after Johannesburg and Cape Town, and the largest city in the province of KwaZulu-Natal.

Geographical distribution of home languages in eThekwini metropole

- Afrikaans
- English
- Xhosa
- Zulu
- No language dominant

search term: tree planting Wikipedia Page

Tree planting is the process of transplanting tree seedlings, generally for forestry, land reclamation, or landscaping purposes. It differs from the transplantation of larger trees in arboriculture and from the lower-cost but slower and less reliable distribution of tree seeds. Trees contribute to their environment over long periods of time by improving air quality, climate amelioration, conserving water, preserving soil, and supporting wildlife. During the process of photosynthesis, trees take in carbon dioxide and produce oxygen.

A tree planter in northern Ontario

search term: Microbiology Wikipedia Page

Microbiology (from Ancient Greek μῑκρος (mīkros) 'small' βίος (bíos) 'life' and -λογία (-logía) 'study of') is the scientific study of microorganisms, those being of unicellular (single-celled), multicellular (consisting of complex cells), or acellular (lacking cells).[1][2] Microbiology encompasses numerous sub-disciplines including virology, bacteriology, protistology, mycology, immunology, and parasitology.

An agar plate streaked with microorganisms

search term: Forest Ecology Wikipedia Page

Forest ecology is the scientific study of the interrelated patterns, processes, flora, fauna, funga, and ecosystems in forests.[1] The management of forests is known as forestry, silviculture, and forest management. A forest ecosystem is a natural woodland unit consisting of all plants, animals, and micro-organisms (biotic components) in that area functioning together with all of the non-living physical (abiotic) factors of the environment.[2]

The Daintree Rainforest in Queensland, Australia

search term: Global Ecology Wikipedia Page

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search term: Landscape Ecology Wikipedia Page

Landscape ecology is the science of studying and improving relationships between ecological processes in the environment and particular ecosystems. This is done within a variety of landscape scales, development spatial patterns, and organizational levels of research and policy.[1][2][3] Landscape ecology can be described as the science of "landscape diversity" as the synergetic result of biodiversity and geodiversity.[4]

Land cover surrounding Madison, Wisconsin. Fields are colored yellow and brown and urban surfaces are colored red.

search term: Biological Conservation Wikipedia Page

Conservation biology is the study of the conservation of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions.[1][2][3] It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences, and the practice of natural resource management.[4][5][page needed][6][7]

2016 conservation indicator which includes the following indicators: marine protected areas, terrestrial biome protection (global and national), and species protection (global and national)

search term: taxonomic groups Wikipedia Page

In biology, taxonomy (from Ancient Greek τάξις (taxis) 'arrangement' and -νομία (-nomia) 'method') is the scientific study of naming, defining (circumscribing) and classifying groups of biological organisms based on shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped into taxa (singular: taxon), and these groups are given a taxonomic rank; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a more inclusive group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are domain, kingdom, phylum (division is sometimes used in botany in place of phylum), class, order, family, genus, and species. The Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy, having developed a ranked system known as Linnaean taxonomy for categorizing organisms.

Description of rare animals (写生珍禽图), by Song dynasty painter Huang Quan (903–965)

search term: exotic species Wikipedia Page

An introduced species, alien species, exotic species, adventive species, immigrant species, foreign species, non-indigenous species, or non-native species is a species living outside its native distributional range, but which has arrived there by human activity, directly or indirectly, and either deliberately or accidentally. Non-native species can have various effects on the local ecosystem. Introduced species that become established and spread beyond the place of introduction are considered naturalized. The process of human-caused introduction is distinguished from biological colonization, in which species spread to new areas through "natural" (non-human) means such as storms and rafting. The Latin expression neobiota captures the characteristic that these species are new biota to their environment in terms of established biological network (e.g. food web) relationships. Neobiota can further be divided into neozoa (also: neozoons, sing. neozoon, i.e. animals) and neophyta (plants).

Cattle Bos primigenius taurus introduced but not naturalized worldwide

search term: chytrid fungus Wikipedia Page

Chytridiomycota are a division of zoosporic organisms in the kingdom Fungi, informally known as chytrids. The name is derived from the Ancient Greek χυτρίδιον (khutrídion), meaning "little pot", describing the structure containing unreleased zoospores. Chytrids are one of the earliest diverging fungal lineages, and their membership in kingdom Fungi is demonstrated with chitin cell walls, a posterior whiplash flagellum, absorptive nutrition, use of glycogen as an energy storage compound, and synthesis of lysine by the α-amino adipic acid (AAA) pathway.[2][3]

search term: endemic species Wikipedia Page

Endemism is the state of a species being found only in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also found elsewhere.[1] For example, the Cape sugarbird (Promerops cafer) is found exclusively in southwestern South Africa and is therefore said to be endemic to that particular part of the world.[2] An endemic species can also be referred to as an endemism or, in scientific literature, as an endemite.[3][4]

Both the orange-breasted sunbird (Anthobaphes violacea) and the Kniphofia uvaria plant it feeds on are found exclusively in South Africa.

search term: regional climate change Wikipedia Page

Effects of climate change are well documented and growing for Earth's natural environment and human societies. Changes to the climate system include an overall warming trend, changes to precipitation patterns, and more extreme weather. As the climate changes it impacts the natural environment with effects such as more intense forest fires, thawing permafrost, and desertification. These changes impact ecosystems and societies, and can become irreversible once tipping points are crossed. Climate activists are engaged in a range of activities around the world that seek to ameliorate these issues or prevent them from happening.[1]

The primary causes[5] and the wide-ranging impacts[6][7][3]: 3–36 of climate change. Some effects act as positive feedbacks that amplify climate change.[8]

search term: water supplies Wikipedia Page

Water supply is the provision of water by public utilities, commercial organisations, community endeavors or by individuals, usually via a system of pumps and pipes. Public water supply systems are crucial to properly functioning societies. These systems are what supply drinking water to populations around the globe.[1] Aspects of service quality include continuity of supply, water quality and water pressure. The institutional responsibility for water supply is arranged differently in different countries and regions (urban versus rural). It usually includes issues surrounding policy and regulation, service provision and standardization.

A girl collects clean water from a communal water supply in Kawempe, Uganda.

search term: carbon dynamics Wikipedia Page

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search term: salamanders Wikipedia Page

Cryptobranchoidea
Salamandroidea
Sirenoidea

search term: insect pest outbreaks Wikipedia Page

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search term: vegetation changes Wikipedia Page

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search term: functional diversity Wikipedia Page

Functional diversity can refer to:

search term: savanna Wikipedia Page

A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland-grassland (i.e. grassy woodland) biome and ecosystem characterised by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of grasses.[1][2][3] Four savanna forms exist; savanna woodland where trees and shrubs form a light canopy, tree savanna with scattered trees and shrubs, shrub savanna with distributed shrubs, and grass savanna where trees and shrubs are mostly nonexistent.[4]

A tree savanna at Tarangire National Park in Tanzania in East Africa

search term: temperate peatlands Wikipedia Page

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search term: land cover change Wikipedia Page

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search term: nutrient cycling Wikipedia Page

A nutrient cycle (or ecological recycling) is the movement and exchange of inorganic and organic matter back into the production of matter. Energy flow is a unidirectional and noncyclic pathway, whereas the movement of mineral nutrients is cyclic. Mineral cycles include the carbon cycle, sulfur cycle, nitrogen cycle, water cycle, phosphorus cycle, oxygen cycle, among others that continually recycle along with other mineral nutrients into productive ecological nutrition.

Nutrient cycle of a typical terrestrial ecosystem

search term: carbon stocks Wikipedia Page

Prescriptive and policy

search term: water storage Wikipedia Page

Water storage is a broad term referring to storage of both potable water for consumption, and non potable water for use in agriculture. In both developing countries and some developed countries found in tropical climates, there is a need to store potable drinking water during the dry season. In agriculture water storage, water is stored for later use in natural water sources, such as groundwater aquifers, soil water, natural wetlands, and small artificial ponds, tanks and reservoirs behind major dams. Storing water invites a host of potential issues regardless of that water's intended purpose, including contamination through organic and inorganic means.[1]

Great Nile Dam, at first cataract, Egypt, 1908, Copyright, 1908, by Stereo-Travel Co. Brooklyn Museum Archives

search term: freshwater biodiversity Wikipedia Page

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search term: erosion control Wikipedia Page

Erosion control is the practice of preventing or controlling wind or water erosion in agriculture, land development, coastal areas, river banks and construction. Effective erosion controls handle surface runoff and are important techniques in preventing water pollution, soil loss, wildlife habitat loss and human property loss.

Terraces, conservation tillage, and conservation buffers save soil and improve water quality on this Iowa farm.

search term: Heat waves Wikipedia Page

A heat wave or heatwave, sometimes described as extreme heat, is a period of abnormally hot weather [1]: 2911 that lasts for multiple days. A heat wave is usually measured relative to the usual climate in the area and to normal temperatures for the season.[2] The main difficulties with this broad definition emerge when one must quantify what the 'normal' temperature state is, and what the spatial extent of the event may or must be. Temperatures that humans from a hotter climate consider normal can be regarded as a heat wave in a cooler area. This would be the case if the warm temperatures are outside the normal climate pattern for that area. Heat waves have become more frequent, and more intense over land, across almost every area on Earth since the 1950s, the increase in frequency and duration being caused by climate change.[3]: 8–10[4]

A high pressure system in the upper atmosphere traps heat near the ground, forming a heat wave (for North America in this example)

search term: breeding success Wikipedia Page

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search term: heat tolerance Wikipedia Page

Plant breeding is process of development of new cultivars. Plant breeding involves development of varieties for different environmental conditions – some of them are not favorable. Among them, heat stress is one of such factor that reduces the production and quality significantly. So breeding against heat is a very important criterion for breeding for current as well as future environments produced by global climate change (e.g. global warming).

search term: dragonflies Wikipedia Page

A dragonfly is a flying insect belonging to the infraorder Anisoptera below the order Odonata. About 3,000 extant species of dragonflies are known. Most are tropical, with fewer species in temperate regions. Loss of wetland habitat threatens dragonfly populations around the world. Adult dragonflies are characterised by a pair of large, multifaceted, compound eyes, two pairs of strong, transparent wings, sometimes with coloured patches, and an elongated body. Many dragonflies have brilliant iridescent or metallic colours produced by structural coloration, making them conspicuous in flight. An adult dragonfly's compound eyes have nearly 24,000 ommatidia each.

search term: abundances Wikipedia Page

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search term: mosquitoes Wikipedia Page

Mosquitoes, the Culicidae, are a family of small flies consisting of 3,600 species. The word mosquito (formed by mosca and diminutive -ito)[2] is Spanish and Portuguese for little fly.[3] Mosquitoes have a slender segmented body, one pair of wings, three pairs of long hair-like legs, and specialized, highly elongated, piercing-sucking mouthparts. All mosquitoes drink nectar from flowers; females of many species have adapted to also drink blood. The group diversified during the Cretaceous period. Evolutionary biologists view mosquitoes as micropredators, small animals that parasitise larger ones by drinking their blood without immediately killing them. Medical parasitologists instead view mosquitoes as vectors of disease, carrying protozoan parasites or bacterial or viral pathogens from one host to another.

search term: reptiles Wikipedia Page

See text for extinct groups.

Reptiles, from Nouveau Larousse Illustré, 1897–1904, notice the inclusion of amphibians (below the crocodilians)

search term: fauna Wikipedia Page

The Fauna (pl.: faunae or faunas) is the whole of animal life present in a particular region or time. The corresponding terms for plants and fungi are flora and funga, respectively. Flora, fauna, funga and other forms of life are collectively referred to as biota. Zoologists and paleontologists use fauna to refer to a typical collection of animals found in a specific time or place, e.g. the "Sonoran Desert fauna" or the "Burgess Shale fauna". Paleontologists sometimes refer to a sequence of faunal stages, which is a series of rocks all containing similar fossils. The study of animals of a particular region is called faunistics.

Simplified schematic of an island's fauna – all its animal species, highlighted in boxes

search term: tree species Wikipedia Page

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search term: land area Wikipedia Page

This is a list of the world's countries and their dependencies, ranked by total area, including land and water.

Dymaxion map of the world with the 30 largest countries and territories by area

search term: carbon cycle Wikipedia Page

The carbon cycle is a part of the biogeochemical cycle where carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of Earth. Other major biogeochemical cycles include the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle. Carbon is the main component of biological compounds as well as a major component of many rocks such as limestone. The carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key to making Earth capable of sustaining life. It describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the biosphere, as well as long-term processes of carbon sequestration (storage) to and release from carbon sinks. At 422.7 parts per million (ppm), the global average carbon dioxide has set a new record high in 2024.[2]

Carbon cycle schematic showing the movement of carbon between land, atmosphere, and oceans in billions of tons (gigatons) per year. Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, red are human contributions, and white are stored carbon. The effects of the slow (or deep) carbon cycle, such as volcanic and tectonic activity are not included.[1]

search term: global burned area Wikipedia Page

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search term: ENSO Wikipedia Page

El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) is a global climate phenomenon that emerges from variation in winds and sea surface temperatures over the tropical Pacific Ocean. Those variations have an irregular pattern but do have some semblance of cycles. The occurrence of ENSO is not predictable. It affects the climate of much of the tropics and subtropics, and has links (teleconnections) to higher-latitude regions of the world. The warming phase of the sea surface temperature is known as "El Niño" and the cooling phase as "La Niña". The Southern Oscillation is the accompanying atmospheric oscillation, which is coupled with the sea temperature change.

Southern Oscillation Index timeseries from 1876 to 2025. The Southern Oscillation is the atmospheric component of El Niño. This component is an oscillation in surface air pressure between the tropical eastern and the western Pacific Ocean waters.

search term: African Sahel Wikipedia Page

The Sahel region (/səˈhɛl/; from Arabic ساحل (sāḥil [ˈsaːħil]) 'coast, shore'), or Sahelian acacia savanna, is a biogeographical region in Africa. It is the transition zone between the more humid Sudanian savannas to its south and the drier Sahara to the north. The Sahel has a hot semi-arid climate and stretches across the southernmost latitudes of North Africa between the Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea. Although geographically located in the tropics, the Sahel does not have a tropical climate.

The lush green of the Sahelian acacia savanna during the rainy summer season in Mali. Note the large baobab amongst the acacia.

search term: Tree mortality Wikipedia Page

Forest dieback (also "Waldsterben", a German loan word,
pronounced [ˈvaltˌʃtɛʁbn̩] ⓘ) is a condition in trees or woody plants in which peripheral parts are killed, either by pathogens, parasites or conditions like acid rain, drought,[1] and more.

Jizera Mountains in Central Europe in 2006

search term: carbon uptake Wikipedia Page

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search term: Peatlands Wikipedia Page

A peatland is a type of wetland whose soils consist of organic matter from decaying plants, forming layers of peat. Peatlands arise because of incomplete decomposition of organic matter, usually litter from vegetation, due to water-logging and subsequent anoxia.[1] Peatlands are unusual landforms that derive mostly from biological rather than physical processes, and can take on characteristic shapes and surface patterning.

A variety of mire types in Carbajal Valley, Argentina

search term: methane emissions Wikipedia Page

Increasing methane emissions are a major contributor to the rising concentration of greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere, and are responsible for up to one-third of near-term global heating.[1][2] During 2019, about 60% (360 million tons) of methane released globally was from human activities, while natural sources contributed about 40% (230 million tons).[3][4] Reducing methane emissions by capturing and utilizing the gas can produce simultaneous environmental and economic benefits.[1][5]

Globally averaged atmospheric concentration and its annual growth rate.[18] In April 2022, NOAA reported an annual increase in global atmospheric methane of 17 parts per billion (ppb) in 2021—averaging 1,895.7 ppb in that year—the largest annual increase recorded since systematic measurements began in 1983; the increase during 2020 was 15.3 ppb, itself a record increase.[19]

search term: carbon fluxes Wikipedia Page

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search term: Climate factors Wikipedia Page

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search term: natural environment Wikipedia Page

The natural environment or natural world encompasses all biotic and abiotic things occurring naturally, meaning in this case not artificial. The term is most often applied to Earth or some parts of Earth. This environment encompasses the interaction of all living species, climate, weather and natural resources that affect human survival and economic activity.[1] The concept of the natural environment can be distinguished as components:

Land management has preserved the natural characteristics of Hopetoun Falls, Australia while allowing ample access for visitors.

search term: ecosystem restoration Wikipedia Page

Ecological restoration, or ecosystem restoration, is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, destroyed[1] or transformed.[2] It is distinct from conservation in that it attempts to retroactively repair already damaged ecosystems rather than take preventative measures.[3][4] Ecological restoration can help to reverse biodiversity loss, combat climate change, support the provision of ecosystem services and support local economies.[5] The United Nations has named 2021–2030 the Decade on Ecosystem Restoration.[6]

Recently constructed wetland regeneration in Australia, on a site previously used for agriculture

search term: Natural England Wikipedia Page

Natural England is a non-departmental public body in the United Kingdom sponsored by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs. It is responsible for ensuring that England's natural environment, including its land, flora and fauna, freshwater and marine environments, geology and soils, are protected and enhanced. It also has a responsibility to help people enjoy, understand and access the natural environment.

search term: national park Wikipedia Page

A national park is a nature park designated for conservation purposes because of unparalleled national natural, historic, or cultural significance. It is an area of natural, semi-natural, or developed land that is protected and owned by a government. Although governments hold different standards for national park designation, the conservation of 'wild nature' for posterity and as a symbol of national pride[1] is a common motivation for the continued protection of all national parks around the world. National parks are almost always accessible to the public.[2] Usually national parks are developed, owned and managed by national governments, though in some countries with federal or devolved forms of government, "national parks" may be the responsibility of subnational, regional, or local authorities.[a]

Bogd Khan Uul National Park in Mongolia is one of the earliest preserved areas now called a national park.

search term: AFAC Wikipedia Page

search term: Earth System Science Data Wikipedia Page

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search term: Ecohydrology Wikipedia Page

Ecohydrology (from Greek οἶκος, oikos, "house(hold)"; ὕδωρ, hydōr, "water"; and -λογία, -logia) is an interdisciplinary scientific field studying the interactions between water and ecological systems. It is considered a sub discipline of hydrology, with an ecological focus. These interactions may take place within water bodies, such as rivers and lakes, or on land, in forests, deserts, and other terrestrial ecosystems. Areas of research in ecohydrology include transpiration and plant water use, adaption of organisms to their water environment, influence of vegetation and benthic plants on stream flow and function, and feedbacks between ecological processes, the soil carbon sponge and the hydrological cycle.

Conceptual model describing the mechanisms of water flow attenuation within a beaver wetland with an unconfined floodplain

search term: American Meteorological Society Wikipedia Page

The American Meteorological Society (AMS) is a scientific and professional organization in the United States promoting and disseminating information about the atmospheric, oceanic, and hydrologic sciences. Its mission is to advance the atmospheric and related sciences, technologies, specifications, applications and services for the benefit of society.[1]

search term: vulnerable species Wikipedia Page

A vulnerable species is a species which has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as being threatened with extinction unless the circumstances that are threatening its survival and reproduction improve.

Mexican red-knee tarantula (Brachypelma hamorii), a vulnerable species from Mexico

search term: ticks Wikipedia Page

Ticks are parasitic arachnids of the order Ixodida. They are part of the mite superorder Parasitiformes. Adult ticks are approximately 3 to 5 mm in length depending on age, sex, and species, but can become larger when engorged. Ticks are external parasites, living by feeding on the blood of mammals, birds, and sometimes reptiles and amphibians. The timing of the origin of ticks is uncertain, though the oldest known tick fossils are around 100 million years old, and come from the Cretaceous period. Ticks are widely distributed around the world, especially in warm, humid climates.

search term: grazing Wikipedia Page

In agriculture, grazing is a method of animal husbandry whereby domestic livestock are allowed outdoors to free range (roam around) and consume wild vegetations in order to convert the otherwise indigestible (by human gut) cellulose within grass and other forages into meat, milk, wool and other animal products. Grazing is often done on lands that are unsuitable for arable farming, although there are occasions where arable lands and even prior farmlands are intentionally kept or converted to pastures to raise commercially valuable grazing animals.

Dairy cattle grazing in Germany

search term: Terrestrial ecosystems Wikipedia Page

Terrestrial ecosystems are ecosystems that are found on land. Examples include tundra, taiga, temperate deciduous forest, tropical rain forest, grassland, deserts.[1]

search term: Tropical forests Wikipedia Page

Tropical forests are forested ecoregions with tropical climates – that is, land areas approximately bounded by the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, but possibly affected by other factors such as prevailing winds.

Borneo rainforest

search term: GSAT Wikipedia Page

The GSAT (Geosynchronous Satellite)[1] satellites are India's indigenously developed communications satellites, used for digital audio, data and video broadcasting. As of 5 December 2018, 20 GSAT satellites manufactured by the Indian Space Research Organisation have been launched, out of which 14 are in service.

search term: Biodiversity loss Wikipedia Page

Biodiversity loss happens when plant or animal species disappear completely from Earth (extinction) or when there is a decrease or disappearance of species in a specific area. Biodiversity loss means that there is a reduction in biological diversity in a given area. The decrease can be temporary or permanent. It is temporary if the damage that led to the loss is reversible in time, for example through ecological restoration. If this is not possible, then the decrease is permanent. The cause of most of the biodiversity loss is, generally speaking, human activities that push the planetary boundaries too far.[1][2][3] These activities include habitat destruction[4] (for example deforestation) and land use intensification (for example monoculture farming).[5][6] Further problem areas are air and water pollution (including nutrient pollution), over-exploitation, invasive species[7] and climate change.[4]

Summary of major environmental-change categories that cause biodiversity loss. The data is expressed as a percentage of human-driven change (in red) relative to baseline (blue), as of 2021. Red indicates the percentage of the category that is damaged, lost, or otherwise affected, whereas blue indicates the percentage that is intact, remaining, or otherwise unaffected.[1]

search term: Ecosystem services Wikipedia Page

Ecosystem services are the various benefits that humans derive from ecosystems. The interconnected living and non-living components of the natural environment offer benefits such as pollination of crops, clean air and water, decomposition of wastes, and flood control. Ecosystem services are grouped into four broad categories of services. There are provisioning services, such as the production of food and water; regulating services, such as the control of climate and disease; supporting services, such as nutrient cycles and oxygen production; and cultural services, such as recreation, tourism, and spiritual gratification.[1] Evaluations of ecosystem services may include assigning an economic value to them.

An example of an ecosystem service is pollination, here by a honey bee on avocado crop.

search term: recovery Wikipedia Page

Recovery or Recover may refer to:

search term: ecosystem processes Wikipedia Page

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search term: water purification Wikipedia Page

Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, biological contaminants, suspended solids, and gases from water. The goal is to produce water that is fit for specific purposes. Most water is purified and disinfected for human consumption (drinking water), but water purification may also be carried out for a variety of other purposes, including medical, pharmacological, chemical, and industrial applications. The history of water purification includes a wide variety of methods. The methods used include physical processes such as filtration, sedimentation, and distillation; biological processes such as slow sand filters or biologically active carbon; chemical processes such as flocculation and chlorination; and the use of electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light.

Typical drinking water treatment processes

search term: species extinctions Wikipedia Page

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search term: climate changes Wikipedia Page

Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate. The current rise in global temperatures is driven by human activities, especially fossil fuel (coal, oil and natural gas) burning since the Industrial Revolution.[3][4] Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices release greenhouse gases.[5] These gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight, warming the lower atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, the primary gas driving global warming, has increased in concentration by about 50% since the pre-industrial era to levels not seen for millions of years.[6]

Global surface temperature reconstruction over the past 2000 years using proxy data from tree rings, corals, and ice cores in blue.[42] Directly observed data is in red.[43]

search term: top predators Wikipedia Page

An apex predator, also known as a top predator or superpredator, is a predator[note 1] at the top of a food chain, without natural predators of its own.[4][5]

The lion is the world's second-largest big cat and serves as an apex land predator in Africa.[1][2]

search term: climate change attribution Wikipedia Page

The scientific community has been investigating the causes of current climate change for decades. After thousands of studies, the scientific consensus is that it is "unequivocal that human influence has warmed the atmosphere, ocean and land since pre-industrial times."[1]: 3 This consensus is supported by around 200 scientific organizations worldwide.[2] The scientific principle underlying current climate change is the greenhouse effect, which provides that greenhouse gases pass sunlight that heats the earth, but trap some of the resulting heat that radiates from the planet's surface. Large amounts of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane have been released into the atmosphere through burning of fossil fuels since the industrial revolution. Indirect emissions from land use change, emissions of other greenhouse gases such as nitrous oxide, and increased concentrations of water vapor in the atmosphere, also contribute to climate change.[1]

Brown bars indicate drivers that increase global warming, and blue bars indicate those that decrease global warming. Future global warming potential for long lived drivers like carbon dioxide emissions is not represented.

search term: water temperatures Wikipedia Page

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search term: Tropics Wikipedia Page

The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the equator, where the sun may shine directly overhead. This contrasts with the temperate or polar regions of Earth, where the Sun can never be directly overhead. Because of Earth's axial tilt, the width of the tropics (in latitude) is twice the tilt. The tropics are also referred to as the tropical zone and the torrid zone (see geographical zone).

World map with the intertropical zone highlighted in crimson

search term: IUCN Red List Wikipedia Page

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List of Threatened Species, also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data Book, founded in 1964, is an inventory of the global conservation status and extinction risk of biological species.[1] A series of Regional Red Lists, which assess the risk of extinction to species within a political management unit, are also produced by countries and organizations.

search term: ectotherms Wikipedia Page

An ectotherm (from Ancient Greek ἐκτός (ektós) 'outside' and θερμός (thermós) 'heat'), more commonly referred to as a "cold-blooded animal",[1] is an animal in which internal physiological sources of heat, such as blood, are of relatively small or of quite negligible importance in controlling body temperature.[2] Such organisms (frogs, for example) rely on environmental heat sources,[3] which permit them to operate at very economical metabolic rates.[4]

Pseudemys turtles (shown here basking for warmth) are ectothermic.

search term: snails Wikipedia Page

A snail is a shelled gastropod. The name is most often applied to land snails, terrestrial pulmonate gastropod molluscs. However, the common name snail is also used for most of the members of the molluscan class Gastropoda that have a coiled shell that is large enough for the animal to retract completely into. When the word "snail" is used in this most general sense, it includes not just land snails but also numerous species of sea snails and freshwater snails. Gastropods that naturally lack a shell, or have only an internal shell, are mostly called slugs, and land snails that have only a very small shell (that they cannot retract into) are often called semi-slugs.

search term: human infectious diseases Wikipedia Page

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search term: local adaptation Wikipedia Page

Local adaptation is a mechanism in evolutionary biology whereby a population of organisms evolves to be more well-suited to its local environment than other members of the same species that live elsewhere. Local adaptation requires that different populations of the same species experience different natural selection. For example, if a species lives across a wide range of temperatures, populations from warm areas may have better heat tolerance than populations of the same species that live in the cold part of its geographic range.

Hypothetical results from two reciprocal transplant experiments, in which organisms from site1 and site2 are transplanted to both sites and their performance compared. In both experiments (panels), the local sources outcompete the foreign sources, indicating that populations are locally adapted. In the left panel each source also does best at its home site. In the right panel site1 is higher quality than site2, so both populations do best in site1, even though the population from site2 is locally adapted to its poor quality site.

search term: corridors Wikipedia Page

Corridor or The Corridor may refer to:

search term: grassland Wikipedia Page

A grassland is an area (or ecosystem) where the vegetation is dominated by grasses. However, sedges and rushes can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes such as clover, and other herbs. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica and are found in most ecoregions of the Earth. Furthermore, grasslands are one of the largest biomes on Earth and dominate the landscape worldwide.[1] There are different types of grasslands: natural grasslands, semi-natural grasslands,[2] and agricultural grasslands.[1] They cover 31–69% of the Earth's land area.[3][4]

Nachusa Grasslands, spring 2016

search term: nitrogen deposition Wikipedia Page

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search term: northern peatlands Wikipedia Page

The page "Northern peatlands" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: drainage Wikipedia Page

A storm drain, storm sewer (United Kingdom, U.S. and Canada), highway drain,[1] surface water drain/sewer (United Kingdom), or stormwater drain (Australia and New Zealand) is infrastructure designed to drain excess rain and ground water from impervious surfaces such as paved streets, car parks, parking lots, footpaths, sidewalks, and roofs. Storm drains vary in design from small residential dry wells to large municipal systems.

Storm drain grate on a street in Warsaw, Poland

search term: carbon loss Wikipedia Page

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search term: Animals Wikipedia Page

Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms comprising the biological kingdom Animalia (/ˌænɪˈmeɪliə/[4]). With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, have myocytes and are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development. Animals form a clade, meaning that they arose from a single common ancestor. Over 1.5 million living animal species have been described, of which around 1.05 million are insects, over 85,000 are molluscs, and around 65,000 are vertebrates. It has been estimated there are as many as 7.77 million animal species on Earth. Animal body lengths range from 8.5 μm (0.00033 in) to 33.6 m (110 ft). They have complex ecologies and interactions with each other and their environments, forming intricate food webs. The scientific study of animals is known as zoology, and the study of animal behaviour is known as ethology.

search term: Browning Wikipedia Page

Browning may refer to:

search term: dissolved organic matter Wikipedia Page

Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) is the fraction of organic carbon operationally defined as that which can pass through a filter with a pore size typically between 0.22 and 0.7 micrometers.[2] The fraction remaining on the filter is called particulate organic carbon (POC).[3]

Net ocean DOC production and export fluxes
Net DOC production (NDP) in the upper 74 metres (a) and net DOC export (NDX) below 74 metres (b). At steady state, the global summation of NDX is equal to that of NDP, and is 2.31 ± 0.60 PgC yr.[1]

search term: southwestern USA Wikipedia Page

The Southwestern United States, also known as the American Southwest or simply the Southwest, is a geographic and cultural region of the United States that includes Arizona and New Mexico, along with adjacent portions of California, Colorado, Nevada, Oklahoma, Texas, and Utah. The largest cities by metropolitan area are Phoenix, Las Vegas, El Paso, Albuquerque, and Tucson.[2] Before 1848, in the historical region of Santa Fe de Nuevo México as well as parts of Alta California and Coahuila y Tejas, settlement was almost non-existent outside of New Mexico's pueblos and Spanish or Mexican municipalities. Much of the area had been a part of New Spain and Mexico until the United States acquired the area through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 and the smaller Gadsden Purchase in 1854.

search term: fossil fuels Wikipedia Page

A fossil fuel[a] is a flammable carbon compound- or hydrocarbon-containing material[2] formed naturally in the Earth's crust from the buried remains of prehistoric organisms (animals, plants or microplanktons), a process that occurs within geological formations. Reservoirs of such compound mixtures, such as coal, petroleum and natural gas, can be extracted and burnt as fuel for human consumption to provide energy for direct use (such as for cooking, heating or lighting), to power heat engines (such as steam or internal combustion engines) that can propel vehicles, or to generate electricity via steam turbine generators.[3] Some fossil fuels are further refined into derivatives such as kerosene, gasoline and diesel, or converted into petrochemicals such as polyolefins (plastics), aromatics and synthetic resins.

Since oil fields are located only at certain places on Earth,[20] only some countries are oil-independent; the other countries depend on the oil-production capacities of these countries.

search term: tropical rainforests Wikipedia Page

Tropical rainforests are dense and warm rainforests with high rainfall typically found between 10° north and south of the Equator. They are a subset of the tropical forest biome that occurs roughly within the 28° latitudes (in the torrid zone between the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn). Tropical rainforests are a type of tropical moist broadleaf forest, that includes the more extensive seasonal tropical forests.[3] True rainforests usually occur in tropical rainforest climates where no dry season occurs; all months have an average precipitation of at least 60 mm (2.4 in). Seasonal tropical forests with tropical monsoon or savanna climates are sometimes included in the broader definition.

An area of the Amazon rainforest in Brazil. The tropical rainforests of South America contain the largest diversity of species on Earth.[1][2]

search term: carbon source Wikipedia Page

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activities intensify the greenhouse effect. This contributes to climate change. Carbon dioxide (CO2), from burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, is the main cause of climate change. The largest annual emissions are from China followed by the United States. The United States has higher emissions per capita. The main producers fueling the emissions globally are large oil and gas companies. Emissions from human activities have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50% over pre-industrial levels. The growing levels of emissions have varied, but have been consistent among all greenhouse gases. Emissions in the 2010s averaged 56 billion tons a year, higher than any decade before.[2] Total cumulative emissions from 1870 to 2022 were 703 GtC (2575 GtCO2), of which 484±20 GtC (1773±73 GtCO2) from fossil fuels and industry, and 219±60 GtC (802±220 GtCO2) from land use change. Land-use change, such as deforestation, caused about 31% of cumulative emissions over 1870–2022, coal 32%, oil 24%, and gas 10%.[3][4]

Greenhouse gas emissions per person in the highest-emitting countries.[1] Areas of rectangles represent total emissions for each country.

search term: Wildfire Wikipedia Page

A wildfire, forest fire, or a bushfire is an unplanned and uncontrolled fire in an area of combustible vegetation.[1][2] Some natural forest ecosystems depend on wildfire.[3] Modern forest management often engages in prescribed burns to mitigate fire risk and promote natural forest cycles. However, controlled burns can turn into wildfires by mistake.

Wildfire burning in the Kaibab National Forest, Arizona, United States, in 2020. The Mangum Fire burned more than 70,000 acres (280 km2) of forest.

search term: observations Wikipedia Page

Observation in the natural sciences refers to the active acquisition of information from a primary source.[1] It involves the act of noticing or perceiving phenomena[2] and gathering data based on direct engagement with the subject of study.

Observing the air traffic in Rõuge, Estonia

search term: extinction Wikipedia Page

Extinction is the termination of an organism by the death of its last member. A taxon may become functionally extinct before the death of its last member if it loses the capacity to reproduce and recover. As a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa, where a species presumed extinct abruptly "reappears" (typically in the fossil record) after a period of apparent absence.

The thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus) is an example of a recently extinct species.

search term: carbon cycling Wikipedia Page

The carbon cycle is a part of the biogeochemical cycle where carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of Earth. Other major biogeochemical cycles include the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle. Carbon is the main component of biological compounds as well as a major component of many rocks such as limestone. The carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key to making Earth capable of sustaining life. It describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the biosphere, as well as long-term processes of carbon sequestration (storage) to and release from carbon sinks. At 422.7 parts per million (ppm), the global average carbon dioxide has set a new record high in 2024.[2]

Carbon cycle schematic showing the movement of carbon between land, atmosphere, and oceans in billions of tons (gigatons) per year. Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, red are human contributions, and white are stored carbon. The effects of the slow (or deep) carbon cycle, such as volcanic and tectonic activity are not included.[1]

search term: permafrost peatlands Wikipedia Page

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search term: global climate Wikipedia Page

Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a region, typically averaged over 30 years.[1][2] More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation. In a broader sense, climate is the state of the components of the climate system, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere and biosphere and the interactions between them.[1] The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, longitude, terrain, altitude, land use and nearby water bodies and their currents.[3]

Worldwide Köppen climate classifications

search term: Protected Areas Wikipedia Page

Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural or cultural values. Protected areas are those areas in which human presence or the exploitation of natural resources (e.g. firewood, non-timber forest products, water, ...) is limited.[1]

World map with percentage of each country under protection (2005 data)
0–3.9% of the country is protected
3.9–11.3% protected
11.3–22.7% protected
22.7–41.8% protected
41.8–72.3% protected
No data

search term: global protected area Wikipedia Page

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search term: vegetation dynamics Wikipedia Page

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search term: natural habitats Wikipedia Page

The page "Natural habitats" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: limited evidence Wikipedia Page

The page "Limited evidence" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: African penguins Wikipedia Page

Diomedea demersa Linnaeus, 1758

search term: income benefits Wikipedia Page

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search term: Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area Wikipedia Page

The Tasmanian Wilderness World Heritage Area, abbreviated to TWWHA, is a World Heritage Site in Tasmania, Australia.[1][2] It is one of the largest conservation areas in Australia, covering 15,800 km2 (6,100 sq mi), or almost 25 per cent of Tasmania. It is also one of the last expanses of temperate wilderness in the world, and includes the South West Wilderness.

search term: sustainable management Wikipedia Page

Sustainable management takes the concepts from sustainability and synthesizes them with the concepts of management. Sustainability has three branches: the environment, the needs of present and future generations, and the economy. Using these branches, it creates the ability of a system to thrive by maintaining economic viability and also nourishing the needs of the present and future generations by limiting resource depletion.

search term: Joshua Tree National Park Wikipedia Page

Joshua Tree National Park is a US National Park located in southeastern California, straddling north-central Riverside County and part of southern San Bernardino County. Named after the endemic Joshua tree (Yucca brevifolia), found in the park and surrounding areas, Joshua Tree is situated some 130 miles (211 km) east of the city of Los Angeles and roughly 78 mi (125 km) east of the city of San Bernardino. Among some of the closest cities to the park are Indio, Palm Desert, and Palm Springs. Originally declared a national monument in 1936, Joshua Tree was redesignated as a national park in 1994 when the U.S. Congress passed the California Desert Protection Act.[4]

search term: ecological restoration Wikipedia Page

Ecological restoration, or ecosystem restoration, is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, destroyed[1] or transformed.[2] It is distinct from conservation in that it attempts to retroactively repair already damaged ecosystems rather than take preventative measures.[3][4] Ecological restoration can help to reverse biodiversity loss, combat climate change, support the provision of ecosystem services and support local economies.[5] The United Nations has named 2021–2030 the Decade on Ecosystem Restoration.[6]

Recently constructed wetland regeneration in Australia, on a site previously used for agriculture

search term: peatland restoration Wikipedia Page

Peatland restoration is a term describing measures to restore the original form and function of peatlands, or wet peat-rich areas.[1][2] This landscape globally occupies 400 million hectares or 3% of land surface on Earth.[3][4] Historically, peatlands have been drained for several main reasons; peat extraction, creation of agricultural land, and forestry usage. However, this activity has caused degradation affecting this landscape's structure through damage to habitats, hydrology, nutrients cycle, carbon balance and more.

Map of Global Peatland Distribution, Concentration and Location.

search term: Integrated landscape management Wikipedia Page

Landscape-scale conservation is a holistic approach to landscape management, aiming to reconcile the competing objectives of nature conservation and economic activities across a given landscape. Landscape-scale conservation may sometimes be attempted because of climate change. It can be seen as an alternative to site based conservation.

Landscape scale conservation attempts to reconcile competing pressures on the designated Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty across the United Kingdom.[1]

search term: Biogeosciences Wikipedia Page

Biogeosciences is an open-access peer-reviewed scientific journal of the European Geosciences Union launched in 2004 by editors-in-chief Jean-Pierre Gattuso and Jürgen Kesselmeier. It covers all aspects of the interactions between the biological, chemical, and physical processes in terrestrial or extraterrestrial life with the geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. It cuts across the boundaries of established sciences and achieve an interdisciplinary view of these interactions.

search term: Hydrological Processes Wikipedia Page

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search term: Sierra Nevada Wikipedia Page

The Sierra Nevada (/siˌɛrə nɪˈvædə, -ˈvɑːd-/ see-ERR-ə nih-VA(H)D-ə)[6][a] is a mountain range in the Western United States, between the Central Valley of California and the Great Basin. The vast majority of the range lies in the state of California, although the Carson Range spur lies primarily in Nevada. The Sierra Nevada is part of the American Cordillera, an almost continuous chain of mountain ranges that forms the western "backbone" of the Americas.

search term: Geospat Health Wikipedia Page

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search term: Land Degradation Wikipedia Page

Land degradation is a process where land becomes less healthy and productive due to a combination of human activities or natural conditions. The causes for land degradation are numerous and complex.[1] Human activities are often the main cause, such as unsustainable land management practices. Natural hazards are excluded as a cause; however human activities can indirectly affect phenomena such as floods and wildfires.

Overgrazing by livestock can lead to land degradation.

search term: Global Change Wikipedia Page

Global change in broad sense refers to planetary-scale changes in the Earth system. It is most commonly used to encompass the variety of changes connected to the rapid increase in human activities which started around mid-20th century, i.e., the Great Acceleration. While the concept stems from research on the climate change, it is used to adopt a more holistic view of the observed changes. Global change refers to the changes of the Earth system, treated in its entirety with interacting physicochemical and biological components as well as the impact human societies have on the components and vice versa.[1] Therefore, the changes are studied through means of Earth system science.

Six global time series from Our World In Data as well as solar irradiance

search term: Global Biogeochemical Cycles Wikipedia Page

The page "Global Biogeochemical Cycles" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: Limnology Wikipedia Page

Limnology (/lɪmˈnɒlədʒi/ lim-NOL-ə-jee; from Ancient Greek λίμνη (límnē) 'lake' and -λογία (-logía) 'study of') is the study of inland aquatic ecosystems.[1] It includes aspects of the biological, chemical, physical, and geological characteristics of fresh and saline, natural and man-made bodies of water. This includes the study of lakes, reservoirs, ponds, rivers, springs, streams, wetlands, and groundwater.[2] Water systems are often categorized as either running (lotic) or standing (lentic).[3]

Lake Hāwea, New Zealand

search term: Nature Wikipedia Page

Nature is an inherent character or constitution,[1] particularly of the ecosphere or the universe as a whole. In this general sense nature refers to the laws, elements and phenomena of the physical world, including life. Although humans are part of nature, human activity or humans as a whole are often described as at times at odds, or outright separate and even superior to nature.[2]

A timelapse composite panorama of different natural phenomena and environments around Mount Bromo, Indonesia.

search term: Veterinary Parasitology Wikipedia Page

Veterinary parasitology is a branch of veterinary medicine that deals with the study of morphology, life-cycle, pathogenesis, diagnosis, treatment, and control of eukaryotic invertebrates of the kingdom Animalia and the taxon Protozoa that depend upon other invertebrates and higher vertebrates for their propagation, nutrition, and metabolism without necessarily causing the death of their hosts. Modern parasitology focuses on responses of animal hosts to parasitic invasion. Parasites of domestic animals, (livestock and pet animals), as well as wildlife animals are considered. Data obtained from parasitological research in animals helps in veterinary practice and improves animal breeding. The major goal of veterinary parasitology is to protect animals and improve their health, but because a number of animal parasites are transmitted to humans, veterinary parasitology is also important for public health.[1][2][3]

search term: Earth System Dynamics Wikipedia Page

Earth System Dynamics is a peer-reviewed[1] open access scientific journal[2] published by Copernicus Publications on behalf of the European Geosciences Union.[3] The journal publishes articles describing original research on the geology, climate change, and atmospheric science.[4]

search term: Land Use Wikipedia Page

Land use is an umbrella term to describe what happens on a parcel of land. It concerns the benefits derived from using the land, and also the land management actions that humans carry out there.[1] The following categories are used for land use: forest land, cropland (agricultural land), grassland, wetlands, settlements and other lands.[2] The way humans use land, and how land use is changing, has many impacts on the environment.[3][4] Effects of land use choices and changes by humans include, for example, urban sprawl, soil erosion, soil degradation, land degradation and desertification.[5] Land use and land management practices have a major impact on natural resources including water, soil, nutrients, plants and animals.[6][7]

Cumulative CO2 emissions from land-use change (as of 2021). Emissions from land-use change can be positive or negative depending on whether these changes emit (positive, brown on the map) or sequester (negative) carbon (green on the map).

search term: tree mortality Wikipedia Page

Forest dieback (also "Waldsterben", a German loan word,
pronounced [ˈvaltˌʃtɛʁbn̩] ⓘ) is a condition in trees or woody plants in which peripheral parts are killed, either by pathogens, parasites or conditions like acid rain, drought,[1] and more.

Jizera Mountains in Central Europe in 2006

search term: peatlands Wikipedia Page

A peatland is a type of wetland whose soils consist of organic matter from decaying plants, forming layers of peat. Peatlands arise because of incomplete decomposition of organic matter, usually litter from vegetation, due to water-logging and subsequent anoxia.[1] Peatlands are unusual landforms that derive mostly from biological rather than physical processes, and can take on characteristic shapes and surface patterning.

A variety of mire types in Carbajal Valley, Argentina

search term: Global Change Biology Wikipedia Page

Global Change Biology is a biweekly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering research on the interface between biological systems and all aspects of environmental change that affect a substantial part of the globe[1] including climate change, global warming, land use change, invasive species, urbanization, wildfire, and greenhouse gases. The editor-in-chief is Stephen P. Long,[2] environmental plant physiologist, Fellow of the Royal Society and member of the National Academy of Sciences (University of Illinois and Lancaster University).

search term: birds Wikipedia Page

Neornithes Gadow, 1883

search term: United States of America Wikipedia Page

The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 contiguous states border Canada to the north and Mexico to the south, with the semi-exclave of Alaska in the northwest and the archipelago of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean. The United States also asserts sovereignty over five major island territories and various uninhabited islands in Oceania and the Caribbean.[j] It is a megadiverse country, with the world's third-largest land area[c] and third-largest population, exceeding 340 million.[k]

Cliff Palace, a settlement of ancestors of the Native American Pueblo peoples in present-day Montezuma County, Colorado, built between c.1200 and 1275[34]

search term: fire Wikipedia Page

Fire is the rapid oxidation of a fuel in the exothermic chemical process of combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products.[1][a] Flames, the most visible portion of the fire, are produced in the combustion reaction when the fuel reaches its ignition point temperature. Flames from hydrocarbon fuels consist primarily of carbon dioxide, water vapor, oxygen, and nitrogen. If hot enough, the gases may become ionized to produce plasma.[2] The color and intensity of the flame depend on the type of fuel and composition of the surrounding gases.[3]

Here, food is cooked in a cauldron above fire in South Africa.

search term: savannas Wikipedia Page

A savanna or savannah is a mixed woodland-grassland (i.e. grassy woodland) biome and ecosystem characterised by the trees being sufficiently widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of grasses.[1][2][3] Four savanna forms exist; savanna woodland where trees and shrubs form a light canopy, tree savanna with scattered trees and shrubs, shrub savanna with distributed shrubs, and grass savanna where trees and shrubs are mostly nonexistent.[4]

A tree savanna at Tarangire National Park in Tanzania in East Africa

search term: National Academy of Sciences Wikipedia Page

The National Academy of Sciences (NAS) is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental organization. NAS is part of the National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, along with the National Academy of Engineering (NAE) and the National Academy of Medicine (NAM).

search term: mammals Wikipedia Page

A mammal (from Latin mamma 'breast')[1] is a vertebrate animal of the class Mammalia (/məˈmeɪli.ə/). Mammals are characterised by the presence of milk-producing mammary glands for feeding their young, a broad neocortex region of the brain, fur or hair, and three middle ear bones. These characteristics distinguish them from reptiles and birds, from which their ancestors diverged in the Carboniferous Period over 300 million years ago. Around 6,640 extant species of mammals have been described and divided into 27 orders.[2] The study of mammals is called mammalogy.

search term: evapotranspiration Wikipedia Page

Evapotranspiration (ET) refers to the combined processes which move water from the Earth's surface (open water and ice surfaces, bare soil and vegetation) into the atmosphere.[2] It covers both water evaporation (movement of water to the air directly from soil, canopies, and water bodies) and transpiration (evaporation that occurs through the stomata, or openings, in plant leaves). Evapotranspiration is an important part of the local water cycle and climate, and measurement of it plays a key role in water resource management and agricultural irrigation.[3]

Water cycle of the Earth's surface, showing the individual components of transpiration and evaporation that make up evapotranspiration. Other closely related processes shown are runoff and groundwater recharge.

search term: grasslands Wikipedia Page

A grassland is an area (or ecosystem) where the vegetation is dominated by grasses. However, sedges and rushes can also be found along with variable proportions of legumes such as clover, and other herbs. Grasslands occur naturally on all continents except Antarctica and are found in most ecoregions of the Earth. Furthermore, grasslands are one of the largest biomes on Earth and dominate the landscape worldwide.[1] There are different types of grasslands: natural grasslands, semi-natural grasslands,[2] and agricultural grasslands.[1] They cover 31–69% of the Earth's land area.[3][4]

Nachusa Grasslands, spring 2016

search term: Total Environment Wikipedia Page

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search term: wildfire Wikipedia Page

A wildfire, forest fire, or a bushfire is an unplanned and uncontrolled fire in an area of combustible vegetation.[1][2] Some natural forest ecosystems depend on wildfire.[3] Modern forest management often engages in prescribed burns to mitigate fire risk and promote natural forest cycles. However, controlled burns can turn into wildfires by mistake.

Wildfire burning in the Kaibab National Forest, Arizona, United States, in 2020. The Mangum Fire burned more than 70,000 acres (280 km2) of forest.

search term: permafrost thaw Wikipedia Page

Permafrost (from perma- 'permanent' and frost) is soil or underwater sediment which continuously remains below 0 °C (32 °F) for two years or more; the oldest permafrost has been continuously frozen for around 700,000 years.[1] Whilst the shallowest permafrost has a vertical extent of below a meter (3 ft), the deepest is greater than 1,500 m (4,900 ft).[2] Similarly, the area of individual permafrost zones may be limited to narrow mountain summits or extend across vast Arctic regions.[3] The ground beneath glaciers and ice sheets is not usually defined as permafrost, so on land, permafrost is generally located beneath a so-called active layer of soil which freezes and thaws depending on the season.[4]

search term: tropical forests Wikipedia Page

Tropical forests are forested ecoregions with tropical climates – that is, land areas approximately bounded by the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, but possibly affected by other factors such as prevailing winds.

Borneo rainforest

search term: natural ecosystems Wikipedia Page

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search term: EbA Wikipedia Page

Ẹ̀bà (Yoruba) also known as Ebe or Pinon' (in Togo, Benin, and southern Ghana) is a staple swallow from Nigeria, Togo and Benin, also eaten in the West African sub-region and other African countries.[1][2] The term èbà originates from Yoruba. It is a cooked starchy vegetable food made from dried grated cassava (manioc) flour commonly known as garri all across West Africa. It is often eaten with rich soups and stews, with beef, stockfish or mutton. The dish is often described as having a slightly sour, sharp taste.[3][4][5]

search term: CO2 emissions Wikipedia Page

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activities intensify the greenhouse effect. This contributes to climate change. Carbon dioxide (CO2), from burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, is the main cause of climate change. The largest annual emissions are from China followed by the United States. The United States has higher emissions per capita. The main producers fueling the emissions globally are large oil and gas companies. Emissions from human activities have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50% over pre-industrial levels. The growing levels of emissions have varied, but have been consistent among all greenhouse gases. Emissions in the 2010s averaged 56 billion tons a year, higher than any decade before.[2] Total cumulative emissions from 1870 to 2022 were 703 GtC (2575 GtCO2), of which 484±20 GtC (1773±73 GtCO2) from fossil fuels and industry, and 219±60 GtC (802±220 GtCO2) from land use change. Land-use change, such as deforestation, caused about 31% of cumulative emissions over 1870–2022, coal 32%, oil 24%, and gas 10%.[3][4]

Greenhouse gas emissions per person in the highest-emitting countries.[1] Areas of rectangles represent total emissions for each country.

search term: Remote Sensing Wikipedia Page

Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object, in contrast to in situ or on-site observation. The term is applied especially to acquiring information about Earth and other planets. Remote sensing is used in numerous fields, including geophysics, geography, land surveying and most Earth science disciplines (e.g. exploration geophysics, hydrology, ecology, meteorology, oceanography, glaciology, geology). It also has military, intelligence, commercial, economic, planning, and humanitarian applications, among others.

Synthetic aperture radar image of Death Valley colored using polarimetry

search term: carbon emissions Wikipedia Page

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activities intensify the greenhouse effect. This contributes to climate change. Carbon dioxide (CO2), from burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, is the main cause of climate change. The largest annual emissions are from China followed by the United States. The United States has higher emissions per capita. The main producers fueling the emissions globally are large oil and gas companies. Emissions from human activities have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50% over pre-industrial levels. The growing levels of emissions have varied, but have been consistent among all greenhouse gases. Emissions in the 2010s averaged 56 billion tons a year, higher than any decade before.[2] Total cumulative emissions from 1870 to 2022 were 703 GtC (2575 GtCO2), of which 484±20 GtC (1773±73 GtCO2) from fossil fuels and industry, and 219±60 GtC (802±220 GtCO2) from land use change. Land-use change, such as deforestation, caused about 31% of cumulative emissions over 1870–2022, coal 32%, oil 24%, and gas 10%.[3][4]

Greenhouse gas emissions per person in the highest-emitting countries.[1] Areas of rectangles represent total emissions for each country.

search term: climate warming Wikipedia Page

Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate. The current rise in global temperatures is driven by human activities, especially fossil fuel (coal, oil and natural gas) burning since the Industrial Revolution.[3][4] Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices release greenhouse gases.[5] These gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight, warming the lower atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, the primary gas driving global warming, has increased in concentration by about 50% since the pre-industrial era to levels not seen for millions of years.[6]

Global surface temperature reconstruction over the past 2000 years using proxy data from tree rings, corals, and ice cores in blue.[42] Directly observed data is in red.[43]

search term: IPBES Wikipedia Page

The Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) is an intergovernmental organization established to improve communication between science and policy on issues of biodiversity and ecosystem services.[1] It serves a similar role to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).[2]
The IPBES Bureau has agreed, on the basis of a proposal by the secretariat for the purposes of brand unity and brand recognition, to adopt a common pronunciation of the IPBES acronym. In keeping with widespread linguistic convention, the acronym is officially pronounced as “ip-bes” – “ip” as in “hip” and “bes” as in “best”. [3]

search term: plasticity Wikipedia Page

Plasticity may refer to:

search term: boreal forest Wikipedia Page

Taiga or tayga (/ˈtaɪɡə/ TY-gə; Russian: тайга́,
IPA: [tɐjˈɡa]), also known as boreal forest or snow forest, is a biome characterized by coniferous forests consisting mostly of pines, spruces, and larches. The taiga, or boreal forest, is the world's largest land biome.[1] In North America, it covers most of inland Canada, Alaska, and parts of the northern contiguous United States.[2] In Eurasia, it covers most of Sweden, Finland, much of Russia from Karelia in the west to the Pacific Ocean (including much of Siberia), much of Norway and Estonia, some of the Scottish Highlands,[citation needed] some lowland/coastal areas of Iceland, and areas of northern Kazakhstan, northern Mongolia, and northern Japan (on the island of Hokkaido).[3]

search term: vegetation Wikipedia Page

Vegetation is an assemblage of plants and the ground cover they provide.[2] It is a general term, without specific reference to particular taxa, life forms, structure, spatial extent, or any other specific botanical or geographic characteristics. It is broader than the term flora which refers to species composition. Perhaps the closest synonym is plant community, but "vegetation" can, and often does, refer to a wider range of spatial scales than that term does, including scales as large as the global. Primeval redwood forests, coastal mangrove stands, sphagnum bogs, desert soil crusts, roadside weed patches, wheat fields, cultivated gardens and lawns; all are encompassed by the term "vegetation".

These maps show a scale, or index of greenness, based on several factors: the number and type of plants, leafiness, and plant health. Where foliage is dense and plants are growing quickly, the index is high, represented in dark green. Regions with sparse vegetation and a low vegetation index are shown in tan. Based on measurements from the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA's Terra satellite. Areas where there is no data are gray.[1]

search term: animals Wikipedia Page

Animals are multicellular, eukaryotic organisms comprising the biological kingdom Animalia (/ˌænɪˈmeɪliə/[4]). With few exceptions, animals consume organic material, breathe oxygen, have myocytes and are able to move, can reproduce sexually, and grow from a hollow sphere of cells, the blastula, during embryonic development. Animals form a clade, meaning that they arose from a single common ancestor. Over 1.5 million living animal species have been described, of which around 1.05 million are insects, over 85,000 are molluscs, and around 65,000 are vertebrates. It has been estimated there are as many as 7.77 million animal species on Earth. Animal body lengths range from 8.5 μm (0.00033 in) to 33.6 m (110 ft). They have complex ecologies and interactions with each other and their environments, forming intricate food webs. The scientific study of animals is known as zoology, and the study of animal behaviour is known as ethology.

search term: species composition Wikipedia Page

Relative species abundance is a component of biodiversity and is a measure of how common or rare a species is relative to other species in a defined location or community.[1] Relative abundance is the percent composition of an organism of a particular kind relative to the total number of organisms in the area.[citation needed] Relative species abundances tend to conform to specific patterns that are among the best-known and most-studied patterns in macroecology. Different populations in a community exist in relative proportions; this idea is known as relative abundance.

Figure 1. Relative species abundance of beetles sampled from the river Thames showing the universal "hollow curve". (derived from data presented in Magurran (2004)[2] and collected by C. B. Williams (1964)[3])

search term: Distributions Wikipedia Page

Distribution may refer to:

search term: Diversity Wikipedia Page

Diversity, diversify, or diverse may refer to:

search term: insects Wikipedia Page

Insects (from Latin insectum) are hexapod invertebrates of the class Insecta. They are the largest group within the arthropod phylum. Insects have a chitinous exoskeleton, a three-part body (head, thorax and abdomen), three pairs of jointed legs, compound eyes, and a pair of antennae. Insects are the most diverse group of animals, with more than a million described species; they represent more than half of all animal species.

search term: protected areas Wikipedia Page

Protected areas or conservation areas are locations which receive protection because of their recognized natural or cultural values. Protected areas are those areas in which human presence or the exploitation of natural resources (e.g. firewood, non-timber forest products, water, ...) is limited.[1]

World map with percentage of each country under protection (2005 data)
0–3.9% of the country is protected
3.9–11.3% protected
11.3–22.7% protected
22.7–41.8% protected
41.8–72.3% protected
No data

search term: reindeer Wikipedia Page

See text, traditionally 1, but possibly up to 6

search term: biodiversity Wikipedia Page

Biodiversity is the variability of life on Earth. It can be measured on various levels, for example, genetic variability, species diversity, ecosystem diversity and phylogenetic diversity.[1] Diversity is not distributed evenly on Earth—it is greater in the tropics as a result of the warm climate and high primary productivity in the region near the equator. Tropical forest ecosystems cover less than one-fifth of Earth's terrestrial area and contain about 50% of the world's species.[2] There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity for both marine and terrestrial taxa.[3]

An example of the biodiversity of fungi in a forest in North Saskatchewan (in this photo, there are also leaf lichens and mosses).

search term: hydrology Wikipedia Page

Hydrology (from Ancient Greek ὕδωρ (húdōr) 'water' and -λογία (-logía) 'study of') is the scientific study of the movement, distribution, and management of water on Earth and other planets, including the water cycle, water resources, and drainage basin sustainability. A practitioner of hydrology is called a hydrologist. Hydrologists are scientists studying earth or environmental science, civil or environmental engineering, and physical geography.[1] Using various analytical methods and scientific techniques, they collect and analyze data to help solve water related problems such as environmental preservation, natural disasters, and water management.[1]

Rain falling over a drainage basin in Scotland. Understanding the cycling of water into, through, and out of catchments is a key element of hydrology.

search term: Northern Hemisphere Wikipedia Page

The Northern Hemisphere is the half of Earth that is north of the equator. For other planets in the Solar System, north is defined as being in the same celestial hemisphere relative to the invariable plane of the Solar System as Earth's North Pole.[1]

Northern Hemisphere from above the North Pole

search term: species Wikipedia Page

A species (pl.species) is the basic unit of classification and a taxonomic rank of an organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. It can be defined as the largest group of organisms in which any two individuals of the appropriate sexes or mating types can produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual reproduction. Other ways of defining species include their karyotype, DNA sequence, morphology, behaviour, or ecological niche. In addition, palaeontologists use the concept of the chronospecies since fossil reproduction cannot be examined. The most recent rigorous estimate for the total number of species of eukaryotes is between 8 and 8.7 million.[1][2][3] About 14% of these had been described by 2011.[3] All species (except viruses) are given a two-part name, a "binomen". The first part of a binomen is the name of a genus to which the species belongs. The second part is called the specific name or the specific epithet (in botanical nomenclature, also sometimes in zoological nomenclature). For example, Boa constrictor is one of the species of the genus Boa, with constrictor being the specific name.

The hierarchy of biological classification's eight major taxonomic ranks. A genus contains one or more species. Minor intermediate ranks are not shown.

search term: evolution Wikipedia Page

Evolution is the change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations.[1][2] It occurs when evolutionary processes such as genetic drift and natural selection act on genetic variation, resulting in certain characteristics becoming more or less common within a population over successive generations.[3] The process of evolution has given rise to biodiversity at every level of biological organisation.[4][5]

search term: evolutionary responses Wikipedia Page

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search term: anthropogenic climate change Wikipedia Page

Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate. The current rise in global temperatures is driven by human activities, especially fossil fuel (coal, oil and natural gas) burning since the Industrial Revolution.[3][4] Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices release greenhouse gases.[5] These gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight, warming the lower atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, the primary gas driving global warming, has increased in concentration by about 50% since the pre-industrial era to levels not seen for millions of years.[6]

Global surface temperature reconstruction over the past 2000 years using proxy data from tree rings, corals, and ice cores in blue.[42] Directly observed data is in red.[43]

search term: humans Wikipedia Page

Humans, scientifically known as Homo sapiens, are primates that belong to the biological family of great apes and are characterized by hairlessness, bipedality, and high intelligence. Humans have large brains compared to body size, enabling more advanced cognitive skills that facilitate successful adaptation to varied environments, development of sophisticated tools, and formation of complex social structures and civilizations.

Carl Linnaeus coined the name Homo sapiens.

search term: Amazon rainforest Wikipedia Page

The Amazon rainforest,[a] also called the Amazon jungle or Amazonia, is a moist broadleaf tropical rainforest in the Amazon biome that covers most of the Amazon basin of South America. This basin encompasses 7 million km2 (2.7 million sq mi),[2] of which 6 million km2 (2.3 million sq mi) are covered by the rainforest.[3] This region includes territory belonging to nine nations and 3,344 indigenous territories.

search term: carbon storage Wikipedia Page

Carbon sequestration is the process of storing carbon in a carbon pool.[2]: 2248 It plays a crucial role in limiting climate change by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. There are two main types of carbon sequestration: biologic (also called biosequestration) and geologic.[3]

Geologic and biologic carbon sequestration of excess carbon dioxide in the atmosphere emitted by human activities.[1]

search term: fire weather Wikipedia Page

Fire Weather: A True Story from a Hotter World, also published as Fire Weather: On the Front Lines of a Burning World, is a 2023 book by Canadian-American journalist John Vaillant. It was published by Knopf, a subsidiary of Penguin Random House. The book details the 2016 Fort McMurray wildfire which led to the evacuation of more than 88,000 residents of Fort McMurray, in the province of Alberta, Canada and the destruction of much of the town.

search term: freshwater ecosystems Wikipedia Page

Freshwater ecosystems are a subset of Earth's aquatic ecosystems that include the biological communities inhabiting freshwater waterbodies such as lakes, ponds, rivers, streams, springs, bogs, and wetlands.[1] They can be contrasted with marine ecosystems, which have a much higher salinity. Freshwater habitats can be classified by different factors, including temperature, light penetration, nutrients, and vegetation.

Freshwater ecosystem

search term: deforestation Wikipedia Page

Deforestation or forest clearance is the removal and destruction of a forest or stand of trees from land that is then converted to non-forest use.[1] Deforestation can involve conversion of forest land to farms, ranches, or urban use. About 31% of Earth's land surface is covered by forests at present.[2] This is one-third less than the forest cover before the expansion of agriculture, with half of that loss occurring in the last century.[3] Between 15 million to 18 million hectares of forest, an area the size of Bangladesh, are destroyed every year. On average 2,400 trees are cut down each minute.[4] Estimates vary widely as to the extent of deforestation in the tropics.[5][6] In 2019, nearly a third of the overall tree cover loss, or 3.8 million hectares, occurred within humid tropical primary forests. These are areas of mature rainforest that are especially important for biodiversity and carbon storage.[7][8]

Deforestation of the Amazon rainforest in Brazil's Maranhão state, 2016

search term: global change Wikipedia Page

Global change in broad sense refers to planetary-scale changes in the Earth system. It is most commonly used to encompass the variety of changes connected to the rapid increase in human activities which started around mid-20th century, i.e., the Great Acceleration. While the concept stems from research on the climate change, it is used to adopt a more holistic view of the observed changes. Global change refers to the changes of the Earth system, treated in its entirety with interacting physicochemical and biological components as well as the impact human societies have on the components and vice versa.[1] Therefore, the changes are studied through means of Earth system science.

Six global time series from Our World In Data as well as solar irradiance

search term: conservation Wikipedia Page

Conservation is the preservation or efficient use of resources, or the conservation of various quantities under physical laws.

search term: permafrost degradation Wikipedia Page

The page "Permafrost degradation" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: local extinction Wikipedia Page

Local extinction, also extirpation, is the termination of a species (or other taxon) in a chosen geographic area of study, though it still exists elsewhere. Local extinctions are contrasted with global extinctions.[1][2]

Canis lupus

search term: Environmental Management Wikipedia Page

Environmental resource management or environmental management is the management of the interaction and impact of human societies on the environment. It is not, as the phrase might suggest, the management of the environment itself. Environmental resources management aims to ensure that ecosystem services are protected and maintained for future human generations, and also maintain ecosystem integrity through considering ethical, economic, and scientific (ecological) variables.[1] Environmental resource management tries to identify factors between meeting needs and protecting resources.[2] It is thus linked to environmental protection, resource management, sustainability, integrated landscape management, natural resource management, fisheries management, forest management, wildlife management, environmental management systems, and others.

The shrinking Aral Sea, an example of poor water resource management diverted for irrigation

search term: species range shifts Wikipedia Page

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search term: IUCN Wikipedia Page

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources.[3] Founded in 1948, IUCN has become the global authority on the status of the natural world and the measures needed to safeguard it. It is involved in data gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, and education. IUCN's mission is to "influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable".

search term: restoration Wikipedia Page

Restoration is the act of restoring something to its original state. This may refer to:

search term: cyanobacteria Wikipedia Page

Cyanobacteria (/saɪˌænoʊbækˈtɪəriə/ sy-AN-oh-bak-TEER-ee-ə) are a group of autotrophic gram-negative bacteria[5] of the phylum Cyanobacteriota[1] that can obtain biological energy via oxygenic photosynthesis. The name "cyanobacteria" (from Ancient Greek κύανος (kúanos) 'blue') refers to their bluish green (cyan) color,[6][7] which forms the basis of cyanobacteria's informal common name, blue-green algae.[8][9][10][note 2]

search term: primary productivity Wikipedia Page

In ecology, primary production is the synthesis of organic compounds from atmospheric or aqueous carbon dioxide. It principally occurs through the process of photosynthesis, which uses light as its source of energy, but it also occurs through chemosynthesis, which uses the oxidation or reduction of inorganic chemical compounds as its source of energy. Almost all life on Earth relies directly or indirectly on primary production. The organisms responsible for primary production are known as primary producers or autotrophs, and form the base of the food chain. In terrestrial ecoregions, these are mainly plants, while in aquatic ecoregions algae predominate in this role. Ecologists distinguish primary production as either net or gross, the former accounting for losses to processes such as cellular respiration, the latter not.

Global oceanic and terrestrial photoautotroph abundance, from September 1997 to August 2000. As an estimate of autotroph biomass, it is only a rough indicator of primary-production potential, and not an actual estimate of it. Provided by the SeaWiFS Project, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center and GeoEye.

search term: invasive species Wikipedia Page

An invasive species is an introduced species that harms its new environment.[2] Invasive species adversely affect habitats and bioregions, causing ecological, environmental, and/or economic damage. Since the 20th century, invasive species have become serious economic, social, and environmental threats worldwide.

North American beaver (Castor canadensis) dam in Tierra del Fuego

search term: aridity Wikipedia Page

Aridity is the condition of geographical regions which make up approximately 43% of total global available land area, characterized by low annual precipitation, increased temperatures, and limited water availability.[1][2][3][4] These areas tend to fall upon degraded soils, and their health and functioning are key necessities of regulating ecosystems’ atmospheric components.[5][3]

Arid regions of the Western United States as mapped in 1893

search term: forest fires Wikipedia Page

A wildfire, forest fire, or a bushfire is an unplanned and uncontrolled fire in an area of combustible vegetation.[1][2] Some natural forest ecosystems depend on wildfire.[3] Modern forest management often engages in prescribed burns to mitigate fire risk and promote natural forest cycles. However, controlled burns can turn into wildfires by mistake.

Wildfire burning in the Kaibab National Forest, Arizona, United States, in 2020. The Mangum Fire burned more than 70,000 acres (280 km2) of forest.

search term: Global warming Wikipedia Page

Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate. The current rise in global temperatures is driven by human activities, especially fossil fuel (coal, oil and natural gas) burning since the Industrial Revolution.[3][4] Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices release greenhouse gases.[5] These gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight, warming the lower atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, the primary gas driving global warming, has increased in concentration by about 50% since the pre-industrial era to levels not seen for millions of years.[6]

Global surface temperature reconstruction over the past 2000 years using proxy data from tree rings, corals, and ice cores in blue.[42] Directly observed data is in red.[43]

search term: thermal tolerance Wikipedia Page

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search term: biodiversity loss Wikipedia Page

Biodiversity loss happens when plant or animal species disappear completely from Earth (extinction) or when there is a decrease or disappearance of species in a specific area. Biodiversity loss means that there is a reduction in biological diversity in a given area. The decrease can be temporary or permanent. It is temporary if the damage that led to the loss is reversible in time, for example through ecological restoration. If this is not possible, then the decrease is permanent. The cause of most of the biodiversity loss is, generally speaking, human activities that push the planetary boundaries too far.[1][2][3] These activities include habitat destruction[4] (for example deforestation) and land use intensification (for example monoculture farming).[5][6] Further problem areas are air and water pollution (including nutrient pollution), over-exploitation, invasive species[7] and climate change.[4]

Summary of major environmental-change categories that cause biodiversity loss. The data is expressed as a percentage of human-driven change (in red) relative to baseline (blue), as of 2021. Red indicates the percentage of the category that is damaged, lost, or otherwise affected, whereas blue indicates the percentage that is intact, remaining, or otherwise unaffected.[1]

search term: biodiversity conservation Wikipedia Page

Conservation biology is the study of the conservation of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions.[1][2][3] It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences, and the practice of natural resource management.[4][5][page needed][6][7]

2016 conservation indicator which includes the following indicators: marine protected areas, terrestrial biome protection (global and national), and species protection (global and national)

search term: ecosystems Wikipedia Page

An ecosystem (or ecological system) is a system formed by organisms in interaction with their environment.[2]: 458 The biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.

Rainforest ecosystems are rich in biodiversity. This is the Gambia River in Senegal's Niokolo-Koba National Park.

search term: freshwater species Wikipedia Page

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search term: Management Wikipedia Page

Management (or managing) is the administration of organizations, whether businesses, nonprofit organizations, or government bodies through business administration, nonprofit management, or the political science sub-field of public administration respectively. It is the process of managing the resources of businesses, governments, and other organizations.

An organization chart for the United States Coast Guard shows the hierarchy of managerial roles in that organization.

search term: heat waves Wikipedia Page

A heat wave or heatwave, sometimes described as extreme heat, is a period of abnormally hot weather [1]: 2911 that lasts for multiple days. A heat wave is usually measured relative to the usual climate in the area and to normal temperatures for the season.[2] The main difficulties with this broad definition emerge when one must quantify what the 'normal' temperature state is, and what the spatial extent of the event may or must be. Temperatures that humans from a hotter climate consider normal can be regarded as a heat wave in a cooler area. This would be the case if the warm temperatures are outside the normal climate pattern for that area. Heat waves have become more frequent, and more intense over land, across almost every area on Earth since the 1950s, the increase in frequency and duration being caused by climate change.[3]: 8–10[4]

A high pressure system in the upper atmosphere traps heat near the ground, forming a heat wave (for North America in this example)

search term: ecosystem function Wikipedia Page

An ecosystem (or ecological system) is a system formed by organisms in interaction with their environment.[2]: 458 The biotic and abiotic components are linked together through nutrient cycles and energy flows.

Rainforest ecosystems are rich in biodiversity. This is the Gambia River in Senegal's Niokolo-Koba National Park.

search term: arid regions Wikipedia Page

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search term: Arid Environments Wikipedia Page

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search term: genetic diversity Wikipedia Page

Genetic diversity is the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species. It ranges widely, from the number of species to differences within species, and can be correlated to the span of survival for a species.[1] It is distinguished from genetic variability, which describes the tendency of genetic characteristics to vary.

A graphical representation of the typical human karyotype.

search term: EcoHealth Wikipedia Page

Health ecology (also known as eco-health) is an emerging field that studies the impact of ecosystems on human health. It examines alterations in the biological, physical, social, and economic environments to understand how these changes affect mental and physical human health. Health ecology focuses on a transdisciplinary approach to understanding all the factors which influence an individual's physiological, social, and emotional well-being.

Conceptual map illustrating the connections among nonhuman nature, ecosystem services, environmental ethics, environmental justice, and public health.

search term: Ecosystem Services Wikipedia Page

Ecosystem services are the various benefits that humans derive from ecosystems. The interconnected living and non-living components of the natural environment offer benefits such as pollination of crops, clean air and water, decomposition of wastes, and flood control. Ecosystem services are grouped into four broad categories of services. There are provisioning services, such as the production of food and water; regulating services, such as the control of climate and disease; supporting services, such as nutrient cycles and oxygen production; and cultural services, such as recreation, tourism, and spiritual gratification.[1] Evaluations of ecosystem services may include assigning an economic value to them.

An example of an ecosystem service is pollination, here by a honey bee on avocado crop.

search term: wildlife Wikipedia Page

Wildlife refers to undomesticated animals and uncultivated plant species which can exist in their natural habitat, but has come to include all organisms that grow or live wild in an area without being introduced by humans. Wildlife was also synonymous to game, birds and mammals hunted for sport. Wildlife can be found in all ecosystems, both wild and most developed urban areas, forming distinct groups. While the term in popular culture usually refers to animals that are untouched by human existence, most scientists agree that much wildlife is affected by humans. Some wildlife threaten human safety, health, property and quality of life, but many wild animals have value to humans, whether economic, educational, or sentimental.

A lion (Panthera leo). Lions are an example of charismatic megafauna, a group of wildlife species that are especially popular in human culture.

search term: fire management Wikipedia Page

Fire management may refer to:

search term: MHWs Wikipedia Page

A chart datum is the water surface serving as origin (or coordinate surface) of depths displayed on a nautical chart and for reporting and predicting tide heights. A chart datum is generally derived from some tidal phase, in which case it is also known as a tidal datum.[1] Common chart datums are lowest astronomical tide (LAT)[1] and mean lower low water (MLLW). In non-tidal areas, e.g., the Baltic Sea, mean sea level (MSL) is used.[2]

U.S. civil and maritime uses of tidal data

search term: hypoxia Wikipedia Page

Hypoxia means a lower than normal level of oxygen, and may refer to:

search term: salt marshes Wikipedia Page

A salt marsh, saltmarsh or salting, also known as a coastal salt marsh or a tidal marsh, is a coastal ecosystem in the upper coastal intertidal zone between land and open saltwater or brackish water that is regularly flooded by the tides. It is dominated by dense stands of salt-tolerant plants such as herbs, grasses, or low shrubs.[1][2] These plants are terrestrial in origin and are essential to the stability of the salt marsh in trapping and binding sediments. Salt marshes play a large role in the aquatic food web and the delivery of nutrients to coastal waters. They also support terrestrial animals and provide coastal protection.[2]

Salt marsh during low tide, mean low tide, high tide and very high tide (spring tide).

search term: Southern Ocean Wikipedia Page

Main five oceans division:

The Antarctic Ocean, as delineated by the draft 4th edition of the International Hydrographic Organization's Limits of Oceans and Seas (2002)

search term: kelp forests Wikipedia Page

Kelp forests are underwater areas with a high density of kelp, which covers a large part of the world's coastlines. Smaller areas of anchored kelp are called kelp beds. They are recognized as one of the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth.[1][2] Although algal kelp forest combined with coral reefs only cover 0.1% of Earth's total surface, they account for 0.9% of global primary productivity.[3] Kelp forests occur worldwide throughout temperate and polar coastal oceans.[1] In 2007, kelp forests were also discovered in tropical waters near Ecuador.[4]

Kelp forest

search term: marine organisms Wikipedia Page

Marine life, sea life or ocean life is the collective ecological communities that encompass all aquatic animals, plants, algae, fungi, protists, single-celled microorganisms and associated viruses living in the saline water of marine habitats, either the sea water of marginal seas and oceans, or the brackish water of coastal wetlands, lagoons, estuaries and inland seas. As of 2023[update], more than 242,000 marine species have been documented, and perhaps two million marine species are yet to be documented. An average of 2,332 new species per year are being described.[2][3] Marine life is studied scientifically in both marine biology and in biological oceanography.

Killer whales (orcas) are highly visible marine apex predators that hunt many large species. But most biological activity in the ocean takes place with microscopic marine organisms that cannot be seen individually with the naked eye, such as marine bacteria and phytoplankton.[1]

search term: stratification Wikipedia Page

Stratification may refer to:

search term: marine biodiversity Wikipedia Page

Marine life, sea life or ocean life is the collective ecological communities that encompass all aquatic animals, plants, algae, fungi, protists, single-celled microorganisms and associated viruses living in the saline water of marine habitats, either the sea water of marginal seas and oceans, or the brackish water of coastal wetlands, lagoons, estuaries and inland seas. As of 2023[update], more than 242,000 marine species have been documented, and perhaps two million marine species are yet to be documented. An average of 2,332 new species per year are being described.[2][3] Marine life is studied scientifically in both marine biology and in biological oceanography.

Killer whales (orcas) are highly visible marine apex predators that hunt many large species. But most biological activity in the ocean takes place with microscopic marine organisms that cannot be seen individually with the naked eye, such as marine bacteria and phytoplankton.[1]

search term: North Atlantic Wikipedia Page

The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, with an area of about 85,133,000 km2 (32,870,000 sq mi).[2] It covers approximately 17% of Earth's surface and about 24% of its water surface area. During the Age of Discovery, it was known for separating the New World of the Americas (North America and South America) from the Old World of Afro-Eurasia (Africa, Asia, and Europe).

search term: calcification Wikipedia Page

Calcification is the accumulation of calcium salts in a body tissue. It normally occurs in the formation of bone, but calcium can be deposited abnormally in soft tissue,[1][2] causing it to harden. Calcifications may be classified on whether there is mineral balance or not, and the location of the calcification.[3] Calcification may also refer to the processes of normal mineral deposition in biological systems, such as the formation of stromatolites or mollusc shells (see Biomineralization).

Density-Dependent Colour Scanning Electron Micrograph SEM (DDC-SEM) of cardiovascular calcification, showing in orange calcium phosphate spherical particles (denser material) and, in green, the extracellular matrix (less dense material).[1]

search term: coastal wetlands Wikipedia Page

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search term: Arctic Ocean Wikipedia Page

Main five oceans division:

The Arctic Ocean, with borders as delineated by the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO), including Hudson Bay (some of which is south of 57°N latitude, off the map) and all other marginal seas.

search term: global ocean Wikipedia Page

The ocean is the body of salt water that covers approximately 70.8% of Earth.[8] The ocean is conventionally divided into large bodies of water, which are also referred to as oceans (the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Antarctic/Southern, and Arctic Ocean),[9][10][11] and are themselves mostly divided into seas, gulfs and subsequent bodies of water. The ocean contains 97% of Earth's water[8] and is the primary component of Earth's hydrosphere, acting as a huge reservoir of heat for Earth's energy budget, as well as for its carbon cycle and water cycle, forming the basis for climate and weather patterns worldwide. The ocean is essential to life on Earth, harbouring most of Earth's animals and protist life,[12] originating photosynthesis and therefore Earth's atmospheric oxygen, still supplying half of it.[13]

search term: zooplankton Wikipedia Page

Zooplankton are the heterotrophic component of the planktonic community, having to consume other organisms to thrive. The name comes from Ancient Greek ζῷον (zōîon), meaning "animal", and πλαγκτός (planktós), meaning "drifter, wanderer, roamer", and thus, "animal drifter". Plankton are aquatic organisms that are unable to swim effectively against currents. Consequently, they drift or are carried along by currents in the ocean, or by currents in seas, lakes or rivers.

Zooplankton sample including several species of copepods (1–5), gastropod larva (6) doliolids (7), fish eggs (8), and decapod larva (9) (Photo by Iole Di Capua)

search term: mariculture Wikipedia Page

Mariculture, sometimes called marine farming or marine aquaculture,[1] is a branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms for food and other animal products, in seawater. Subsets of it include (offshore mariculture), fish farms built on littoral waters (inshore mariculture), or in artificial tanks, ponds or raceways which are filled with seawater (onshore mariculture). An example of the latter is the farming of plankton and seaweed, shellfish like shrimp or oysters, and marine finfish, in saltwater ponds. Non-food products produced by mariculture include: fish meal, nutrient agar, jewellery (e.g. cultured pearls), and cosmetics.

Salmon pens off Vestmanna in the Faroe Islands, an example of inshore mariculture

search term: marine life Wikipedia Page

Marine life, sea life or ocean life is the collective ecological communities that encompass all aquatic animals, plants, algae, fungi, protists, single-celled microorganisms and associated viruses living in the saline water of marine habitats, either the sea water of marginal seas and oceans, or the brackish water of coastal wetlands, lagoons, estuaries and inland seas. As of 2023[update], more than 242,000 marine species have been documented, and perhaps two million marine species are yet to be documented. An average of 2,332 new species per year are being described.[2][3] Marine life is studied scientifically in both marine biology and in biological oceanography.

Killer whales (orcas) are highly visible marine apex predators that hunt many large species. But most biological activity in the ocean takes place with microscopic marine organisms that cannot be seen individually with the naked eye, such as marine bacteria and phytoplankton.[1]

search term: sandy beaches Wikipedia Page

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search term: coastal ecosystem services Wikipedia Page

The page "Coastal ecosystem services" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: EBUS Wikipedia Page

Ebus, EBUS, or E-bus may refer to:

search term: growth Wikipedia Page

search term: ification Wikipedia Page

The page "Ification" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: multiple drivers Wikipedia Page

The page "Multiple drivers" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: seabirds Wikipedia Page

Seabirds (also known as marine birds) are birds that are adapted to life within the marine environment. While seabirds vary greatly in lifestyle, behaviour and physiology, they often exhibit striking convergent evolution, as the same environmental problems and feeding niches have resulted in similar adaptations. The first seabirds evolved in the Cretaceous period, while modern seabird families emerged in the Paleogene.

The sooty tern is highly aerial and marine and spends months flying at sea, returning to land only for breeding.[1]

search term: overfishing Wikipedia Page

Overfishing is the removal of a species of fish (i.e. fishing) from a body of water at a rate greater than that the species can replenish its population naturally (i.e. the overexploitation of the fishery's existing fish stock), resulting in the species becoming increasingly underpopulated in that area. Overfishing can occur in water bodies of any sizes, such as ponds, wetlands, rivers, lakes or oceans, and can result in resource depletion, reduced biological growth rates and low biomass levels. Sustained overfishing can lead to critical depensation, where the fish population is no longer able to sustain itself. Some forms of overfishing, such as the overfishing of sharks, has led to the upset of entire marine ecosystems.[1] Types of overfishing include growth overfishing, recruitment overfishing, and ecosystem overfishing. Overfishing not only causes negative impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, but also reduces fish production, which subsequently leads to negative social and economic consequences.[2]

Jack mackerel caught by a Chilean purse seiner

search term: cultural ecosystem services Wikipedia Page

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search term: Marine protected areas Wikipedia Page

A marine protected area (MPA) is a protected area of the world's seas, oceans, estuaries or in the US, the Great Lakes.[2] These marine areas can come in many forms ranging from wildlife refuges to research facilities.[3] MPAs restrict human activity for a conservation purpose, typically to protect natural or cultural resources.[4] Such marine resources are protected by local, state, territorial, native, regional, national, or international authorities and differ substantially among and between nations. This variation includes different limitations on development, fishing practices, fishing seasons and catch limits, moorings and bans on removing or disrupting marine life. MPAs can provide economic benefits by supporting the fishing industry through the revival of fish stocks, as well as job creation and other market benefits via ecotourism.[5] MPAs can provide value to mobile species.[6][7]

Marine protected areas as of November 2022 (data from MPAtlas).[1]

search term: multiple stressors Wikipedia Page

A stressor is a chemical or biological agent, environmental condition, external stimulus or an event seen as causing stress to an organism.[1] Psychologically speaking, a stressor can be events or environments that individuals might consider demanding, challenging, and/or threatening individual safety.[2]

search term: coralline algae Wikipedia Page

Coralline algae are red algae in the order Corallinales, characterized by a thallus containing calcareous deposits within its cell walls, giving it hardness. The colors of these algae are typically some hue of pink, or another shade of red, but some species can be purple, yellow, blue, white, or gray-green. Typically, these algae grow in a crustose manner (encrusting rocks and other hardscape); in the intertidal zone of rocky shorelines, and within coral reefs, these algae appear as an abundance of colorful patches on rock surfaces. Unattached specimens (maerl, rhodoliths) may form relatively smooth compact balls, or forming warty to fruticose thalli.

search term: bleaching Wikipedia Page

Bleach is the generic name for any chemical product that is used industrially or domestically to remove color from (i.e. to whiten) fabric or fiber (in a process called bleaching) or to disinfect after cleaning. It often refers specifically to a dilute solution of sodium hypochlorite, also called "liquid bleach".

Clorox brand bleach

search term: blue carbon ecosystems Wikipedia Page

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search term: habitat loss Wikipedia Page

Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss or habitat reduction) occurs when a natural habitat is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved elsewhere, or are dead, leading to a decrease in biodiversity and species numbers.[1][2] Habitat destruction is in fact the leading cause of biodiversity loss and species extinction worldwide.[3]

Map of the world's biodiversity hot spots, all of which are heavily threatened by habitat loss and degradation

search term: community composition Wikipedia Page

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search term: wave energy Wikipedia Page

Wave power is the capture of energy of wind waves to do useful work – for example, electricity generation, desalination, or pumping water. A machine that exploits wave power is a wave energy converter (WEC).

Motion of a particle in an ocean wave.
A = At deep water. The circular motion magnitude of fluid particles decreases exponentially with increasing depth below the surface.
B = At shallow water (ocean floor is now at B). The elliptical movement of a fluid particle flattens with decreasing depth.
1 = Propagation direction.
2 = Wave crest.
3 = Wave trough.

search term: coastal development Wikipedia Page

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search term: SDG 14.00 Wikipedia Page

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search term: community structure Wikipedia Page

In the study of complex networks, a network is said to have community structure if the nodes of the network can be easily grouped into (potentially overlapping) sets of nodes such that each set of nodes is densely connected internally. In the particular case of non-overlapping community finding, this implies that the network divides naturally into groups of nodes with dense connections internally and sparser connections between groups. But overlapping communities are also allowed. The more general definition is based on the principle that pairs of nodes are more likely to be connected if they are both members of the same community(ies), and less likely to be connected if they do not share communities. A related but different problem is community search, where the goal is to find a community that a certain vertex belongs to.

Fig. 1: A sketch of a small network displaying community structure, with three groups of nodes with dense internal connections and sparser connections between groups.

search term: surface ocean Wikipedia Page

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search term: phenotypic plasticity Wikipedia Page

Phenotypic plasticity refers to some of the changes in an organism's behavior, morphology and physiology in response to a unique environment.[1][2] Fundamental to the way in which organisms cope with environmental variation, phenotypic plasticity encompasses all types of environmentally induced changes (e.g. morphological, physiological, behavioural, phenological) that may or may not be permanent throughout an individual's lifespan.[3]

Phenotypic plasticity is the ability of one genotype to produce more than one phenotype when exposed to different environments. Each line here represents a genotype. Horizontal lines show that the phenotype is the same in different environments; slanted lines show that there are different phenotypes in different environments, and thus indicate plasticity.

search term: seaweeds Wikipedia Page

Seaweed, or macroalgae, refers to thousands of species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae. The term includes some types of Rhodophyta (red), Phaeophyta (brown) and Chlorophyta (green) macroalgae. Seaweed species such as kelps provide essential nursery habitat for fisheries and other marine species and thus protect food sources; other species, such as planktonic algae, play a vital role in capturing carbon and producing at least 50% of Earth's oxygen.[3]

search term: phenological shifts Wikipedia Page

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search term: marine heatwave Wikipedia Page

A marine heatwave is a period of abnormally high sea surface temperatures (SST) compared to typical temperatures for a particular season and locale.[1] Marine heatwaves are caused by a variety of drivers. These include short term weather events such as fronts, intraseasonal events (30 to 90 days), annual, and decadal (10-year) modes like El Niño events, and human-caused climate change.[2][3][4] Such heatwaves affect marine ecosystems.[5][6] For example, heatwaves can lead to events such as coral bleaching, sea star wasting disease,[7][8] harmful algal blooms,[9] and mass mortality of benthic communities.[10] Unlike heatwaves on land, marine heatwaves can extend over vast areas, persist for weeks to months to years, and extend to subsurface levels.[11][12][13][14]

World map showing several marine heatwaves at different locations in August and September 2023. The marine heatwave west of South America is a prominent example.

search term: human communities Wikipedia Page

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search term: marine food webs Wikipedia Page

A marine food web is a food web of marine life. At the base of the ocean food web are single-celled algae and other plant-like organisms known as phytoplankton. The second trophic level (primary consumers) is occupied by zooplankton which feed off the phytoplankton. Higher order consumers complete the web. There has been increasing recognition in recent years concerning marine microorganisms.

The pelagic food web, showing the central involvement of marine microorganisms in how the ocean imports nutrients from and then exports them back to the atmosphere and ocean floor

search term: fish stocks Wikipedia Page

Fish stocks are subpopulations of a particular species of fish, for which intrinsic parameters (growth, recruitment, mortality and fishing mortality) are traditionally regarded as the significant factors determining the stock's population dynamics, while extrinsic factors (immigration and emigration) are traditionally ignored. Stocks fished within biologically sustainable levels decreased from 90% in 1974 to 62.3% in 2021.[1]

Global trends in the state of world marine fish stocks
as reported by FAO 1974–2015

search term: paleorecords Wikipedia Page

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search term: evolutionary adaptation Wikipedia Page

Collective intelligence
Collective action
Self-organized criticality
Herd mentality
Phase transition
Agent-based modelling
Synchronization
Ant colony optimization
Particle swarm optimization
Swarm behaviour

The second of Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's two factors (the first being a complexifying force) was an adaptive force that causes animals with a given body plan to adapt to circumstances by inheritance of acquired characteristics, creating a diversity of species and genera.

search term: ocean governance Wikipedia Page

Ocean governance is the conduct of the policy, actions and affairs regarding the world's oceans. Within governance, it incorporates the influence of non-state actors, i.e. stakeholders, NGOs and so forth, therefore the state is not the only acting power in policy making. However, ocean governance is complex because much of the ocean is a commons that is not 'owned' by any single person or nation/state. There is a belief more strongly in the US than other countries that the "invisible hand" is the best method to determine ocean governance factors. These include factors such as what resources we consume, what price we should pay for them, and how we should use them. The underlying reasoning behind this is the market has to have the desire in order to promote environmental protection, however this is rarely the case. This term is referred to as a market failure. Market failures and government failures are the leading causes of ocean governance complications. As a result, humankind has tended to overexploit marine resources, by treating them as shared resources while not taking equal and collective responsibilities in caring for them.[1]

search term: warming Wikipedia Page

Warming may refer to:

search term: climate velocity Wikipedia Page

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search term: CMIP5 models Wikipedia Page

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search term: metabolic rates Wikipedia Page

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search term: biogeography Wikipedia Page

Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time. Organisms and biological communities often vary in a regular fashion along geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, isolation and habitat area.[1] Phytogeography is the branch of biogeography that studies the distribution of plants, Zoogeography is the branch that studies distribution of animals, while Mycogeography is the branch that studies distribution of fungi, such as mushrooms.

Frontispiece to Alfred Russel Wallace's book The Geographical Distribution of Animals

search term: primary producers Wikipedia Page

An autotroph is an organism that can convert abiotic sources of energy into energy stored in organic compounds, which can be used by other organisms. Autotrophs produce complex organic compounds (such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) using carbon from simple substances such as carbon dioxide,[1] generally using energy from light or inorganic chemical reactions.[2] Autotrophs do not need a living source of carbon or energy and are the producers in a food chain, such as plants on land or algae in water. Autotrophs can reduce carbon dioxide to make organic compounds for biosynthesis and as stored chemical fuel. Most autotrophs use water as the reducing agent, but some can use other hydrogen compounds such as hydrogen sulfide.

Overview of cycle between autotrophs and heterotrophs. Photosynthesis is the main means by which plants, algae and many bacteria produce organic compounds and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water (green arrow).

search term: polar regions Wikipedia Page

The polar regions, also called the frigid zones or polar zones, of Earth are Earth's polar ice caps, the regions of the planet that surround its geographical poles (the North Pole and the South Pole), lying within the polar circles. These high latitudes are dominated by floating sea ice covering much of the Arctic Ocean in the north, and by the Antarctic ice sheet on the continent of Antarctica and the Southern Ocean in the south.

Visualization of the ice and snow covering Earth's northern and southern polar regions

search term: fishing pressure Wikipedia Page

Overfishing is the removal of a species of fish (i.e. fishing) from a body of water at a rate greater than that the species can replenish its population naturally (i.e. the overexploitation of the fishery's existing fish stock), resulting in the species becoming increasingly underpopulated in that area. Overfishing can occur in water bodies of any sizes, such as ponds, wetlands, rivers, lakes or oceans, and can result in resource depletion, reduced biological growth rates and low biomass levels. Sustained overfishing can lead to critical depensation, where the fish population is no longer able to sustain itself. Some forms of overfishing, such as the overfishing of sharks, has led to the upset of entire marine ecosystems.[1] Types of overfishing include growth overfishing, recruitment overfishing, and ecosystem overfishing. Overfishing not only causes negative impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning, but also reduces fish production, which subsequently leads to negative social and economic consequences.[2]

Jack mackerel caught by a Chilean purse seiner

search term: macroalgae Wikipedia Page

Seaweed, or macroalgae, refers to thousands of species of macroscopic, multicellular, marine algae. The term includes some types of Rhodophyta (red), Phaeophyta (brown) and Chlorophyta (green) macroalgae. Seaweed species such as kelps provide essential nursery habitat for fisheries and other marine species and thus protect food sources; other species, such as planktonic algae, play a vital role in capturing carbon and producing at least 50% of Earth's oxygen.[3]

search term: kelp Wikipedia Page

Agaraceae
Akkesiphycaceae
Alariaceae
Aureophycaceae
Chordaceae
Laminariaceae
Lessoniaceae
Pseudochordaceae

Alaskan beach kelp

search term: Red Sea Wikipedia Page

The Red Sea is a sea inlet of the Indian Ocean, lying between Africa and Asia. Its connection to the ocean is in the south, through the Bab-el-Mandeb Strait and the Gulf of Aden. To its north lie the Sinai Peninsula, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Gulf of Suez—leading to the Suez Canal. It is underlain by the Red Sea Rift, which is part of the Great Rift Valley.

search term: persistent organic pollutants Wikipedia Page

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are organic compounds that are resistant to degradation through chemical, biological, and photolytic processes.[1] They are toxic and adversely affect human health and the environment around the world.[1] Because they can be transported by wind and water, most POPs generated in one country can and do affect people and wildlife far from where they are used and released.

State parties to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants

search term: MPA Wikipedia Page

MPA or mPa may refer to:

search term: deep ocean Wikipedia Page

The deep sea is broadly defined as the ocean depth where light begins to fade, at an approximate depth of 200 m (660 ft) or the point of transition from continental shelves to continental slopes.[1][2] Conditions within the deep sea are a combination of low temperatures, darkness, and high pressure.[3] The deep sea is considered the least explored Earth biome as the extreme conditions make the environment difficult to access and explore.[4]

Schematic representation of pelagic and benthic zones

search term: estuaries Wikipedia Page

An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal body of brackish water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea.[1] Estuaries form a transition zone between river environments and maritime environments and are an example of an ecotone. Estuaries are subject both to marine influences such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water, and to fluvial influences such as flows of freshwater and sediment. The mixing of seawater and freshwater provides high levels of nutrients both in the water column and in sediment, making estuaries among the most productive natural habitats in the world.[2]

Río de la Plata estuary

search term: epipelagic zone Wikipedia Page

The photic zone (or euphotic zone, epipelagic zone, or sunlight zone) is the uppermost layer of a body of water that receives sunlight, allowing phytoplankton to perform photosynthesis. It undergoes a series of physical, chemical, and biological processes that supply nutrients into the upper water column. The photic zone is home to the majority of aquatic life due to the activity (primary production) of the phytoplankton. The thicknesses of the photic and euphotic zones vary with the intensity of sunlight as a function of season and latitude and with the degree of water turbidity. The bottommost, or aphotic, zone is the region of perpetual darkness that lies beneath the photic zone and includes most of the ocean waters.[1]

Layers of the pelagic zone

search term: ecosystem functions Wikipedia Page

Ecosystem services are the various benefits that humans derive from ecosystems. The interconnected living and non-living components of the natural environment offer benefits such as pollination of crops, clean air and water, decomposition of wastes, and flood control. Ecosystem services are grouped into four broad categories of services. There are provisioning services, such as the production of food and water; regulating services, such as the control of climate and disease; supporting services, such as nutrient cycles and oxygen production; and cultural services, such as recreation, tourism, and spiritual gratification.[1] Evaluations of ecosystem services may include assigning an economic value to them.

An example of an ecosystem service is pollination, here by a honey bee on avocado crop.

search term: marine ecosystem services Wikipedia Page

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search term: oxygen loss Wikipedia Page

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search term: ocean Wikipedia Page

The ocean is the body of salt water that covers approximately 70.8% of Earth.[8] The ocean is conventionally divided into large bodies of water, which are also referred to as oceans (the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Antarctic/Southern, and Arctic Ocean),[9][10][11] and are themselves mostly divided into seas, gulfs and subsequent bodies of water. The ocean contains 97% of Earth's water[8] and is the primary component of Earth's hydrosphere, acting as a huge reservoir of heat for Earth's energy budget, as well as for its carbon cycle and water cycle, forming the basis for climate and weather patterns worldwide. The ocean is essential to life on Earth, harbouring most of Earth's animals and protist life,[12] originating photosynthesis and therefore Earth's atmospheric oxygen, still supplying half of it.[13]

search term: GMSL Wikipedia Page

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search term: upwelling Wikipedia Page

Upwelling is an oceanographic phenomenon that involves wind-driven motion of dense, cooler, and usually nutrient-rich water from deep water towards the ocean surface. It replaces the warmer and usually nutrient-depleted surface water. The nutrient-rich upwelled water stimulates the growth and reproduction of primary producers such as phytoplankton. The biomass of phytoplankton and the presence of cool water in those regions allow upwelling zones to be identified by cool sea surface temperatures (SST) and high concentrations of chlorophyll a.[2][3]

Effects of equatorial upwelling on surface chlorophyll concentrations in the Pacific Ocean

search term: surface waters Wikipedia Page

Surface water is water located on top of land, forming terrestrial (surrounding by land on all sides) waterbodies, and may also be referred to as blue water, opposed to the seawater and waterbodies like the ocean.

An inland lake, an example of surface water

search term: OMZs Wikipedia Page

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search term: trophic mismatches Wikipedia Page

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search term: carbon export Wikipedia Page

The carbon cycle is a part of the biogeochemical cycle where carbon is exchanged among the biosphere, pedosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere of Earth. Other major biogeochemical cycles include the nitrogen cycle and the water cycle. Carbon is the main component of biological compounds as well as a major component of many rocks such as limestone. The carbon cycle comprises a sequence of events that are key to making Earth capable of sustaining life. It describes the movement of carbon as it is recycled and reused throughout the biosphere, as well as long-term processes of carbon sequestration (storage) to and release from carbon sinks. At 422.7 parts per million (ppm), the global average carbon dioxide has set a new record high in 2024.[2]

Carbon cycle schematic showing the movement of carbon between land, atmosphere, and oceans in billions of tons (gigatons) per year. Yellow numbers are natural fluxes, red are human contributions, and white are stored carbon. The effects of the slow (or deep) carbon cycle, such as volcanic and tectonic activity are not included.[1]

search term: global sea surface warming Wikipedia Page

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search term: assisted evolution Wikipedia Page

Assisted evolution (sometimes referred to as human-assisted evolution)[1] is the practice of using human intervention to accelerate the rate of natural evolutionary processes.[2] The goal of assisted evolution is to help species adapt to a changing environment more quickly than they would via natural selection.[3] Assisted evolution can be used to increase food production and crop yield, as well as ensure targeted species to more quickly become resistant to existential threats. Assisted evolution has been practiced for thousands of years, often for commercial and business purposes. Assisted evolution has come into the public eye in recent years for noncommercial purposes such as species conservation. Assisted evolution for noncommercial purposes is most notably practiced in the attempt to save coral reefs from rising global ocean temperatures and other climate change related environmental conditions.

search term: mussels Wikipedia Page

Pteriomorphia (marine mussels)
Palaeoheterodonta (freshwater mussels)
Heterodonta (zebra mussels)

search term: landward migration Wikipedia Page

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search term: coastal waters Wikipedia Page

A coast (coastline, shoreline, seashore) is the land next to the sea or the line that forms the boundary between the land and the ocean or a lake.[1][2] Coasts are influenced by the topography of the surrounding landscape and by aquatic erosion, such as that caused by waves. The geological composition of rock and soil dictates the type of shore that is created. Earth has about 620,000 km (390,000 mi) of coastline.

Sunrise on the Jersey Shore coastline at Spring Lake, New Jersey, U.S.

search term: ecosystem shifts Wikipedia Page

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search term: marine conservation Wikipedia Page

Marine conservation, also known as ocean conservation, is the protection and preservation of ecosystems in oceans and seas through planned management in order to prevent the over-exploitation of these marine resources. Marine conservation is informed by the study of marine plants and animal resources and ecosystem functions and is driven by response to the manifested negative effects seen in the environment such as species loss, habitat degradation and changes in ecosystem functions[1] and focuses on limiting human-caused damage to marine ecosystems, restoring damaged marine ecosystems, and preserving vulnerable species and ecosystems of the marine life. Marine conservation is a relatively new discipline which has developed as a response to biological issues such as extinction and marine habitats change.

Coral reefs have a great amount of biodiversity.

search term: Ecosystem Collapse Wikipedia Page

An ecosystem, short for ecological system, is defined as a collection of interacting organisms within a biophysical environment.[2]: 458 Ecosystems are never static, and are continually subject to both stabilizing and destabilizing processes.[3] Stabilizing processes allow ecosystems to adequately respond to destabilizing changes, or perturbations, in ecological conditions, or to recover from degradation induced by them. Yet, if destabilizing processes become strong enough or fast enough to cross a critical threshold within that ecosystem, often described as an ecological 'tipping point', then an ecosystem collapse (sometimes also termed ecological collapse)[4] occurs.[5]

Image of the Aral Sea in 1989 (left) and 2014. The Aral Sea is an example of a collapsed ecosystem.[1] (image source: NASA)

search term: sediment dynamics Wikipedia Page

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search term: bioaccumulation Wikipedia Page

Bioaccumulation is the gradual accumulation of substances, such as pesticides or other chemicals, in an organism.[1] Bioaccumulation occurs when an organism absorbs a substance faster than it can be lost or eliminated by catabolism and excretion. Thus, the longer the biological half-life of a toxic substance, the greater the risk of chronic poisoning, even if environmental levels of the toxin are not very high.[2] Bioaccumulation, for example in fish, can be predicted by models.[3][4] Hypothesis for molecular size cutoff criteria for use as bioaccumulation potential indicators are not supported by data.[5] Biotransformation can strongly modify bioaccumulation of chemicals in an organism.[6]

search term: marine animals Wikipedia Page

Marine life, sea life or ocean life is the collective ecological communities that encompass all aquatic animals, plants, algae, fungi, protists, single-celled microorganisms and associated viruses living in the saline water of marine habitats, either the sea water of marginal seas and oceans, or the brackish water of coastal wetlands, lagoons, estuaries and inland seas. As of 2023[update], more than 242,000 marine species have been documented, and perhaps two million marine species are yet to be documented. An average of 2,332 new species per year are being described.[2][3] Marine life is studied scientifically in both marine biology and in biological oceanography.

Killer whales (orcas) are highly visible marine apex predators that hunt many large species. But most biological activity in the ocean takes place with microscopic marine organisms that cannot be seen individually with the naked eye, such as marine bacteria and phytoplankton.[1]

search term: marine adaptation Wikipedia Page

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search term: Arctic sea ice Wikipedia Page

The Arctic ice pack is the sea ice cover of the Arctic Ocean and its vicinity. The Arctic ice pack undergoes a regular seasonal cycle in which ice melts in spring and summer, reaches a minimum around mid-September, then increases during autumn and winter. Summer ice cover in the Arctic is about 50% of winter cover.[1] Some of the ice survives from one year to the next. Currently, 28% of Arctic basin sea ice is multi-year ice,[2] thicker than seasonal ice: up to 3–4 m (9.8–13.1 ft) thick over large areas, with ridges up to 20 m (65.6 ft) thick. Besides the regular seasonal cycle there has been an underlying trend of declining sea ice in the Arctic in recent decades as well.[3]

NOAA projected Arctic changes

search term: CMIP6 models Wikipedia Page

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search term: 2 Wikipedia Page

2 (two) is a number, numeral and digit. It is the natural number following 1 and preceding 3. It is the smallest and the only even prime number.

search term: Earth system models Wikipedia Page

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search term: ocean deoxygenation Wikipedia Page

Ocean deoxygenation is the reduction of the oxygen content in different parts of the ocean due to human activities.[2][3] There are two areas where this occurs. Firstly, it occurs in coastal zones where eutrophication has driven some quite rapid (in a few decades) declines in oxygen to very low levels.[2] This type of ocean deoxygenation is also called dead zones. Secondly, ocean deoxygenation occurs also in the open ocean. In that part of the ocean, there is nowadays an ongoing reduction in oxygen levels. As a result, the naturally occurring low oxygen areas (so called oxygen minimum zones (OMZs)) are now expanding slowly.[4] This expansion is happening as a consequence of human caused climate change.[5][6] The resulting decrease in oxygen content of the oceans poses a threat to marine life, as well as to people who depend on marine life for nutrition or livelihood.[7][8][9] A decrease in ocean oxygen levels affects how productive the ocean is, how nutrients and carbon move around, and how marine habitats function.[10][11]

Global map of low and declining oxygen levels in coastal waters (mainly due to eutrophication) and in the open ocean (due to climate change). The map indicates coastal sites where oxygen levels have declined to less than 2 mg/L (red dots), as well as expanding ocean oxygen minimum zones at 300 metres (blue shaded regions).[1]

search term: nutrient availability Wikipedia Page

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search term: marine ectotherms Wikipedia Page

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search term: hypoxia tolerance Wikipedia Page

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search term: Ocean warming Wikipedia Page

Ocean heat content (OHC) or ocean heat uptake (OHU) is the energy absorbed and stored by oceans.[2] It is an important indicator of global warming.[3] Ocean heat content is calculated by measuring ocean temperature at many different locations and depths, and integrating the areal density of a change in enthalpic energy over an ocean basin or entire ocean.[4]

The ocean heat content (OHC) has been increasing for decades as the ocean has been absorbing most of the excess heat resulting from greenhouse gas emissions from human activities.[1] The graph shows OHC calculated to a water depth of 700 and to 2000 meters.

search term: time series Wikipedia Page

In mathematics, a time series is a series of data points indexed (or listed or graphed) in time order. Most commonly, a time series is a sequence taken at successive equally spaced points in time. Thus it is a sequence of discrete-time data. Examples of time series are heights of ocean tides, counts of sunspots, and the daily closing value of the Dow Jones Industrial Average.

Time series: random data plus trend, with best-fit line and different applied filters

search term: trophic amplification Wikipedia Page

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search term: mass coral bleaching Wikipedia Page

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search term: wave attenuation Wikipedia Page

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search term: fish communities Wikipedia Page

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search term: Coastal ecosystems Wikipedia Page

A marine coastal ecosystem is a marine ecosystem which occurs where the land meets the ocean. Worldwide there is about 620,000 kilometres (390,000 mi) of coastline. Coastal habitats extend to the margins of the continental shelves, occupying about 7 percent of the ocean surface area. Marine coastal ecosystems include many very different types of marine habitats, each with their own characteristics and species composition. They are characterized by high levels of biodiversity and productivity.

Coastal gannet colony

search term: Black Sea Wikipedia Page

Partially recognised states:

search term: phytoplankton production Wikipedia Page

Marine primary production is the chemical synthesis in the ocean of organic compounds from atmospheric or dissolved carbon dioxide. It principally occurs through the process of photosynthesis, which uses light as its source of energy, but it also occurs through chemosynthesis, which uses the oxidation or reduction of inorganic chemical compounds as its source of energy. Almost all life on Earth relies directly or indirectly on primary production. The organisms responsible for primary production are called primary producers or autotrophs.

Ocean chlorophyll concentration as a proxy for marine primary production. Green indicates where there are a lot of phytoplankton, while blue indicates where there are few phytoplankton. – NASA Earth Observatory 2019.[1]

search term: East China Sea Wikipedia Page

The East China Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean, located directly offshore from East China. China names the body of water along its eastern coast as "East Sea" (Dōng Hǎi, simplified Chinese: 东海; traditional Chinese: 東海) due to direction, the name of "East China Sea" is otherwise designated as a formal name by International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) and used internationally.[1]

East China Sea coast in Cangnan County, Zhejiang

search term: phytoplankton blooms Wikipedia Page

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search term: spatial distribution Wikipedia Page

A spatial distribution in statistics is the arrangement of a phenomenon across the Earth's surface and a graphical display of such an arrangement is an important tool in geographical and environmental statistics.[1] A graphical display of a spatial distribution may summarize raw data directly or may reflect the outcome of a more sophisticated data analysis. Many different aspects of a phenomenon can be shown in a single graphical display by using a suitable choice of different colours to represent differences.

The curve above expresses the slope of the seismic intensity as a function of the distance from the epicenter, R2=0.26 . When in a certain methodology the influence of the geological structure variable of each observation was neutralized, the R2 increases to 0.41, which means that the distance together with the geological structure already affect 41% of the variation in the spatial distribution of the intensities, and so on, one can continue and try to understand the effect of the other variables.

search term: regime shifts Wikipedia Page

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search term: tipping points Wikipedia Page

Star Wars: The Clone Wars is an American 3D CGI animated television series created by Lucasfilm Animation, Lucasfilm Animation Singapore, and CGCG Inc. The debut film was released in theaters on August 15, 2008; it served as the introduction of the series. The series made its debut on the American Cartoon Network on October 3, 2008.[1] It is set in the fictional Star Wars galaxy during the three-year interim between Episode II – Attack of the Clones and Episode III – Revenge of the Sith (the same time period as the previous 2003 Clone Wars series). Each episode has a running time of 22 minutes, filling a half-hour time slot.

Star Wars: The Clone Wars intertitle for seasons 1–6

search term: methylmercury Wikipedia Page

Methylmercury is an organometallic cation with the formula [CH3Hg]+. It is the simplest organomercury compound. Methylmercury is extremely toxic, and its derivatives are the major source of organic mercury for humans. It is a bioaccumulative environmental toxicant with a 50-day half-life.[1][clarification needed] Methylmercury (derived biologically from dimethylmercury) is the causative agent of the infamous Minamata disease.

search term: High confidence Wikipedia Page

Analytic confidence is a rating employed by intelligence analysts to convey doubt to decision makers about a statement of estimative probability. The need for analytic confidence ratings arise from analysts' imperfect knowledge of a conceptual model. An analytic confidence rating pairs with a statement using a word of estimative probability to form a complete analytic statement. Scientific methods for determining analytic confidence remain in infancy.

Cover of a National Intelligence Estimate

search term: ecotourism Wikipedia Page

Ecotourism is a form of nature-oriented tourism intended to contribute to the conservation of the natural environment, generally defined as being minimally impactful, and including providing both contributions to conservation and environmental education.[1] The definition sometimes also includes being financially beneficial to the host community[2] or making conservation financially possible.[3] There is a range of different definitions, and the correct definition of the term was an active subject of debate as of 2009.[1][needs update] The term is also used more widely by many organizations offering nature tourism, which do not focus on being beneficial to the environment.[1]

Ecotourism in Svalbard

search term: PLoS Wikipedia Page

PLOS (for Public Library of Science; PLoS until 2012[1]) is a nonprofit publisher of open-access journals in science, technology, and medicine and other scientific literature, under an open-content license. It was founded in 2000 and launched its first journal, PLOS Biology, in October 2003.

search term: One Earth Wikipedia Page

Cell Press is an all-science publisher of over 50 scientific journals across the life, physical, earth, and health sciences, both independently and in partnership with scientific societies. Cell Press was founded and is currently based in Cambridge, MA, and has offices across the United States, Europe, and Asia under its parent company Elsevier.

search term: marine fish Wikipedia Page

Saltwater fish, also called marine fish or sea fish, are fish that live in seawater. Saltwater fish can swim and live alone or in a large group called a school.[1]

Saltwater fish tanks are popular among businesses and households.

search term: nutrient enrichment Wikipedia Page

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search term: mangrove forests Wikipedia Page

Mangrove forests, also called mangrove swamps, mangrove thickets or mangals, are productive wetlands located in tropical and subtropical intertidal zones.[1][2] Approximately 80 mangrove species exist, all adapted to areas where slow-moving water allows for the deposition of fine sediment and low-oxygen soil conditions. These trees cannot endure freezing temperatures, which restricts their distribution to warmer climates.[3]

Mangroves in an ebb tide

search term: economic losses Wikipedia Page

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search term: phytoplankton growth period Wikipedia Page

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search term: range expansions Wikipedia Page

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search term: ecosystem models Wikipedia Page

An ecosystem model is an abstract, usually mathematical, representation of an ecological system (ranging in scale from an individual population, to an ecological community, or even an entire biome), which is studied to better understand the real system.[2]

A structural diagram of the open ocean plankton ecosystem model of Fasham, Ducklow & McKelvie (1990).[1]

search term: paleorecord Wikipedia Page

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search term: manipulation experiments Wikipedia Page

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search term: Ocean currents Wikipedia Page

An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of seawater generated by a number of forces acting upon the water, including wind, the Coriolis effect, breaking waves, cabbeling, and temperature and salinity differences.[1] Depth contours, shoreline configurations, and interactions with other currents influence a current's direction and strength. Ocean currents move both horizontally, on scales that can span entire oceans, as well as vertically, with vertical currents (upwelling and downwelling) playing an important role in the movement of nutrients and gases, such as carbon dioxide, between the surface and the deep ocean.

Ocean surface currents

search term: internal variability Wikipedia Page

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search term: aragonite Wikipedia Page

Aragonite is a carbonate mineral and one of the three most common naturally occurring crystal forms of calcium carbonate (Ca CO3), the others being calcite and vaterite. It is formed by biological and physical processes, including precipitation from marine and freshwater environments.

search term: carbonate chemistry Wikipedia Page

A carbonate is a salt of carbonic acid, (H2CO3),[2] characterized by the presence of the carbonate ion, a polyatomic ion with the formula CO2−3. The word "carbonate" may also refer to a carbonate ester, an organic compound containing the carbonate group O=C(−O−)2.

search term: kelp ecosystems Wikipedia Page

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search term: ocean circulation Wikipedia Page

An ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of seawater generated by a number of forces acting upon the water, including wind, the Coriolis effect, breaking waves, cabbeling, and temperature and salinity differences.[1] Depth contours, shoreline configurations, and interactions with other currents influence a current's direction and strength. Ocean currents move both horizontally, on scales that can span entire oceans, as well as vertically, with vertical currents (upwelling and downwelling) playing an important role in the movement of nutrients and gases, such as carbon dioxide, between the surface and the deep ocean.

Ocean surface currents

search term: survival Wikipedia Page

Survival or survivorship, the act of surviving, is the propensity of something to continue existing, particularly when this is done despite conditions that might kill or destroy it. The concept can be applied to humans and other living things (or, hypothetically, any sentient being), to a physical object, and to abstract things such as beliefs or ideas. Living things generally have a self-preservation instinct to survive, while objects intended for use in harsh conditions are designed for survivability.

U.S. Marines learning survival skills from a Thai military officer

search term: organism Wikipedia Page

An organism is any living thing that functions as an individual.[1] Such a definition raises more problems than it solves, not least because the concept of an individual is also difficult. Several criteria, few of which are widely accepted, have been proposed to define what constitutes an organism. Among the most common is that an organism has autonomous reproduction, growth, and metabolism. This would exclude viruses, even though they evolve like organisms.

One criterion proposes that an organism cannot be divided without losing functionality.[6] This basil plant cutting is however developing new adventitious roots from a small bit of stem, forming a new plant.

search term: drivers Wikipedia Page

search term: microbes Wikipedia Page

A microorganism, or microbe,[a] is an organism of microscopic size, which may exist in its single-celled form or as a colony of cells. The possible existence of unseen microbial life was suspected from antiquity, with an early attestation in Jain literature authored in 6th-century BC India. The scientific study of microorganisms began with their observation under the microscope in the 1670s by Anton van Leeuwenhoek. In the 1850s, Louis Pasteur found that microorganisms caused food spoilage, debunking the theory of spontaneous generation. In the 1880s, Robert Koch discovered that microorganisms caused the diseases tuberculosis, cholera, diphtheria, and anthrax.

A cluster of Escherichia coli bacteria magnified 10,000 times

search term: phytoplankton species Wikipedia Page

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search term: Interactive effects Wikipedia Page

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search term: mass mortality Wikipedia Page

A mass mortality event (MME), also known as a mass die-off (or simply die-off),[1][2] is an incident that kills a vast number of individuals of a single species in a short period of time.[3] The event may put a species at risk of extinction or upset an ecosystem.[4] This is distinct from the mass die-off associated with short lived and synchronous emergent insect taxa which is a regular and non-catastrophic occurrence.[5]

search term: Mangroves Wikipedia Page

A mangrove is a shrub or tree that grows mainly in coastal saline or brackish water. Mangroves grow in an equatorial climate, typically along coastlines and tidal rivers. They have particular adaptations to take in extra oxygen and remove salt, allowing them to tolerate conditions that kill most plants. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves are taxonomically diverse due to convergent evolution in several plant families. They occur worldwide in the tropics and subtropics and even some temperate coastal areas, mainly between latitudes 30° N and 30° S, with the greatest mangrove area within 5° of the equator.[1][2] Mangrove plant families first appeared during the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene epochs and became widely distributed in part due to the movement of tectonic plates. The oldest known fossils of mangrove palm date to 75 million years ago.[2]

Mangroves are hardy shrubs and trees that thrive in salt water and have specialised adaptations so they can survive the volatile energies of intertidal zones along marine coasts.

search term: vegetated dunes Wikipedia Page

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search term: upwelling systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: whales Wikipedia Page

Whales are a widely distributed and diverse group of fully aquatic placental marine mammals. As an informal and colloquial grouping, they correspond to large members of the infraorder Cetacea, i.e. all cetaceans apart from dolphins and porpoises. Dolphins and porpoises may be considered whales from a formal, cladistic perspective. Whales, dolphins and porpoises belong to the order Cetartiodactyla, which consists of even-toed ungulates. Their closest non-cetacean living relatives are the hippopotamuses, from which they and other cetaceans diverged about 54 million years ago. The two parvorders of whales, baleen whales (Mysticeti) and toothed whales (Odontoceti), are thought to have had their last common ancestor around 34 million years ago. Mysticetes include four extant (living) families: Balaenopteridae (the rorquals), Balaenidae (right whales), Cetotheriidae (the pygmy right whale), and Eschrichtiidae (the grey whale). Odontocetes include the Monodontidae (belugas and narwhals), Physeteridae (the sperm whale), Kogiidae (the dwarf and pygmy sperm whale), and Ziphiidae (the beaked whales), as well as the six families of dolphins and porpoises which are not considered whales in the informal sense.

search term: ecosystem resilience Wikipedia Page

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search term: total animal biomass Wikipedia Page

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search term: ensemble projections Wikipedia Page

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search term: phytoplankton community structure Wikipedia Page

The page "Phytoplankton community structure" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: total seafloor biomass Wikipedia Page

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search term: non-indigenous species Wikipedia Page

An introduced species, alien species, exotic species, adventive species, immigrant species, foreign species, non-indigenous species, or non-native species is a species living outside its native distributional range, but which has arrived there by human activity, directly or indirectly, and either deliberately or accidentally. Non-native species can have various effects on the local ecosystem. Introduced species that become established and spread beyond the place of introduction are considered naturalized. The process of human-caused introduction is distinguished from biological colonization, in which species spread to new areas through "natural" (non-human) means such as storms and rafting. The Latin expression neobiota captures the characteristic that these species are new biota to their environment in terms of established biological network (e.g. food web) relationships. Neobiota can further be divided into neozoa (also: neozoons, sing. neozoon, i.e. animals) and neophyta (plants).

Cattle Bos primigenius taurus introduced but not naturalized worldwide

search term: seagrass Wikipedia Page

Seagrasses are the only flowering plants which grow in marine environments. There are about 60 species of fully marine seagrasses which belong to four families (Posidoniaceae, Zosteraceae, Hydrocharitaceae and Cymodoceaceae), all in the order Alismatales (in the clade of monocotyledons).[1] Seagrasses evolved from terrestrial plants which recolonised the ocean 70 to 100 million years ago.

search term: marine spatial planning Wikipedia Page

Marine spatial planning (MSP) also known interchangeably as Maritime Spatial Planning, is an ocean management instrument which aids policy-makers and stakeholders in compartmentalizing sea basins within state jurisdiction according to social, ecological and economical objectives in order to make informed and coordinated decisions about how to use marine resources sustainably.[1][2][3] MSP generally uses maps to create a more comprehensive picture of a marine area[4][5] – identifying where and how an ocean area is being used and what natural resources and habitat exist.[6][7] It is similar to land-use planning, but for marine waters.

Example of MSP off Massachusetts

search term: blue carbon Wikipedia Page

Blue carbon is a concept within climate change mitigation that refers to "biologically driven carbon fluxes and storage in marine systems that are amenable to management".[2]: 2220 Most commonly, it refers to the role that tidal marshes, mangroves and seagrass meadows can play in carbon sequestration.[2]: 2220 These ecosystems can play an important role for climate change mitigation and ecosystem-based adaptation. However, when blue carbon ecosystems are degraded or lost, they release carbon back to the atmosphere, thereby adding to greenhouse gas emissions.[2]: 2220

Ways one blue carbon habitat can influence the carbon concentration and future carbon sequestration in an adjacent blue carbon habitat[1]

search term: blue economy Wikipedia Page

Prescriptive and policy

The maritime transport is a part of the blue economy.

search term: Sustainable Ocean Economy Wikipedia Page

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search term: Lophelia pertusa Wikipedia Page

Lophelia pertusa, the only species in the genus Lophelia,[2][3] is a cold-water coral that grows in the deep waters throughout the North Atlantic ocean, as well as parts of the Caribbean Sea and Alboran Sea.[4] Although L. pertusa reefs are home to a diverse community, the species is extremely slow growing and may be harmed by destructive fishing practices, or oil exploration and extraction.[5]

search term: global distribution Wikipedia Page

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search term: Regional Aspects Wikipedia Page

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search term: herbivory Wikipedia Page

A herbivore is an animal anatomically and physiologically evolved to feed on plants, especially upon vascular tissues such as foliage, fruits or seeds, as the main component of its diet. These more broadly also encompass animals that eat non-vascular autotrophs such as mosses, algae and lichens, but do not include those feeding on decomposed plant matters (i.e. detritivores) or macrofungi (i.e. fungivores).

A deer and two fawns feeding on foliage

search term: acidification Wikipedia Page

Acidification may refer to:

search term: ocean acidification Wikipedia Page

Ocean acidification is the ongoing decrease in the pH of the Earth's ocean. Between 1950 and 2020, the average pH of the ocean surface fell from approximately 8.15 to 8.05.[2] Carbon dioxide emissions from human activities are the primary cause of ocean acidification, with atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) levels exceeding 422 ppm (as of 2024[update]).[3] CO2 from the atmosphere is absorbed by the oceans. This chemical reaction produces carbonic acid (
H2CO3) which dissociates into a bicarbonate ion (HCO−3) and a hydrogen ion (H+). The presence of free hydrogen ions (H+) lowers the pH of the ocean, increasing acidity (this does not mean that seawater is acidic yet; it is still alkaline, with a pH higher than 8). Marine calcifying organisms, such as mollusks and corals, are especially vulnerable because they rely on calcium carbonate to build shells and skeletons.[4]

Ocean acidification means that the average seawater pH value is dropping over time.[1]

search term: Marine heatwaves Wikipedia Page

A marine heatwave is a period of abnormally high sea surface temperatures (SST) compared to typical temperatures for a particular season and locale.[1] Marine heatwaves are caused by a variety of drivers. These include short term weather events such as fronts, intraseasonal events (30 to 90 days), annual, and decadal (10-year) modes like El Niño events, and human-caused climate change.[2][3][4] Such heatwaves affect marine ecosystems.[5][6] For example, heatwaves can lead to events such as coral bleaching, sea star wasting disease,[7][8] harmful algal blooms,[9] and mass mortality of benthic communities.[10] Unlike heatwaves on land, marine heatwaves can extend over vast areas, persist for weeks to months to years, and extend to subsurface levels.[11][12][13][14]

World map showing several marine heatwaves at different locations in August and September 2023. The marine heatwave west of South America is a prominent example.

search term: marine ecosystems Wikipedia Page

Marine ecosystems are the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems and exist in waters that have a high salt content. These systems contrast with freshwater ecosystems, which have a lower salt content. Marine waters cover more than 70% of the surface of the Earth and account for more than 97% of Earth's water supply[1][2] and 90% of habitable space on Earth.[3] Seawater has an average salinity of 35 parts per thousand of water. Actual salinity varies among different marine ecosystems.[4] Marine ecosystems can be divided into many zones depending upon water depth and shoreline features. The oceanic zone is the vast open part of the ocean where animals such as whales, sharks, and tuna live. The benthic zone consists of substrates below water where many invertebrates live. The intertidal zone is the area between high and low tides. Other near-shore (neritic) zones can include mudflats, seagrass meadows, mangroves, rocky intertidal systems, salt marshes, coral reefs, kelp forests and lagoons. In the deep water, hydrothermal vents may occur where chemosynthetic sulfur bacteria form the base of the food web.

Coral reefs form complex marine ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity.

search term: phytoplankton Wikipedia Page

Phytoplankton (/ˌfaɪtoʊˈplæŋktən/) are the autotrophic (self-feeding) components of the plankton community and a key part of ocean and freshwater ecosystems. The name comes from Ancient Greek φυτόν (phutón), meaning "plant", and πλαγκτός (planktós), meaning "drifter, wanderer, roamer", and thus, "plant drifter".[1][2][3]

Global distribution of ocean phytoplankton – NASA
This visualization shows a model simulation of the dominant phytoplankton types averaged over the period 1994–1998. * Red = diatoms (big phytoplankton, which need silica) * Yellow = flagellates (other big phytoplankton) * Green = prochlorococcus (small phytoplankton that cannot use nitrate) * Cyan = synechococcus (other small phytoplankton) Opacity indicates concentration of the carbon biomass. In particular, the role of the swirls and filaments (mesoscale features) appear important in maintaining high biodiversity in the ocean.[17][21]

search term: organisms Wikipedia Page

An organism is any living thing that functions as an individual.[1] Such a definition raises more problems than it solves, not least because the concept of an individual is also difficult. Several criteria, few of which are widely accepted, have been proposed to define what constitutes an organism. Among the most common is that an organism has autonomous reproduction, growth, and metabolism. This would exclude viruses, even though they evolve like organisms.

One criterion proposes that an organism cannot be divided without losing functionality.[6] This basil plant cutting is however developing new adventitious roots from a small bit of stem, forming a new plant.

search term: WGI AR6 Wikipedia Page

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search term: marine protected areas Wikipedia Page

A marine protected area (MPA) is a protected area of the world's seas, oceans, estuaries or in the US, the Great Lakes.[2] These marine areas can come in many forms ranging from wildlife refuges to research facilities.[3] MPAs restrict human activity for a conservation purpose, typically to protect natural or cultural resources.[4] Such marine resources are protected by local, state, territorial, native, regional, national, or international authorities and differ substantially among and between nations. This variation includes different limitations on development, fishing practices, fishing seasons and catch limits, moorings and bans on removing or disrupting marine life. MPAs can provide economic benefits by supporting the fishing industry through the revival of fish stocks, as well as job creation and other market benefits via ecotourism.[5] MPAs can provide value to mobile species.[6][7]

Marine protected areas as of November 2022 (data from MPAtlas).[1]

search term: coastal adaptation Wikipedia Page

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search term: marine species Wikipedia Page

Marine life, sea life or ocean life is the collective ecological communities that encompass all aquatic animals, plants, algae, fungi, protists, single-celled microorganisms and associated viruses living in the saline water of marine habitats, either the sea water of marginal seas and oceans, or the brackish water of coastal wetlands, lagoons, estuaries and inland seas. As of 2023[update], more than 242,000 marine species have been documented, and perhaps two million marine species are yet to be documented. An average of 2,332 new species per year are being described.[2][3] Marine life is studied scientifically in both marine biology and in biological oceanography.

Killer whales (orcas) are highly visible marine apex predators that hunt many large species. But most biological activity in the ocean takes place with microscopic marine organisms that cannot be seen individually with the naked eye, such as marine bacteria and phytoplankton.[1]

search term: ocean warming Wikipedia Page

Ocean heat content (OHC) or ocean heat uptake (OHU) is the energy absorbed and stored by oceans.[2] It is an important indicator of global warming.[3] Ocean heat content is calculated by measuring ocean temperature at many different locations and depths, and integrating the areal density of a change in enthalpic energy over an ocean basin or entire ocean.[4]

The ocean heat content (OHC) has been increasing for decades as the ocean has been absorbing most of the excess heat resulting from greenhouse gas emissions from human activities.[1] The graph shows OHC calculated to a water depth of 700 and to 2000 meters.

search term: marine mammals Wikipedia Page

Marine mammals are mammals that rely on marine ecosystems for their existence. They include animals such as cetaceans, pinnipeds, sirenians, sea otters and polar bears. They are an informal group, unified only by their reliance on marine environments for feeding and survival.

A humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae)

search term: SROCC Wikipedia Page

The United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) Special Report on the Ocean and Cryosphere in a Changing Climate (SROCC) is a report about the effects of climate change on the world's seas, sea ice, icecaps and glaciers. It was approved at the IPCC's 51st Session (IPCC-51) in September 2019 in Monaco.[1] The SROCC's approved Summary for Policymakers (SPM) was released on 25 September 2019.[2] The 1,300-page report by 104 authors and editors representing 36 countries referred to 6,981 publications.[1] The report is the third in the series of three Special Reports in the current Sixth Assessment Report (AR6) cycle, which began in 2015 and was completed in 2022.[3][4] The first was the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C,[5] while the second was the Special Report on Climate Change and Land (SRCCL), also known as the "Special Report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems", which was released on 7 August 2019.

Cover of IPCC SROCC

search term: salinity Wikipedia Page

Salinity (/səˈlɪnɪti/) is the saltiness or amount of salt dissolved in a body of water, called saline water (see also soil salinity). It is usually measured in g/L or g/kg (grams of salt per liter/kilogram of water; the latter is dimensionless and equal to ‰).

Annual mean sea surface salinity for the World Ocean. Data from the World Ocean Atlas 2009.[1]

search term: food webs Wikipedia Page

A food web is the natural interconnection of food chains and a graphical representation of what-eats-what in an ecological community. Position in the food web, or trophic level, is used in ecology to broadly classify organisms as autotrophs or heterotrophs. This is a non-binary classification; some organisms (such as carnivorous plants) occupy the role of mixotrophs, or autotrophs that additionally obtain organic matter from non-atmospheric sources.

A freshwater aquatic food web. The blue arrows show a complete food chain (algae → daphnia → gizzard shad → largemouth bass → great blue heron)

search term: coastal protection Wikipedia Page

Coastal management is defence against flooding and erosion, and techniques that stop erosion to claim lands.[1] Protection against rising sea levels in the 21st century is crucial, as sea level rise accelerates due to climate change. Changes in sea level damage beaches and coastal systems are expected to rise at an increasing rate throughout the century, causing coastal sediments to be disturbed by tidal energy.

Oosterscheldekering sea wall, the Netherlands.

search term: North Pacific Wikipedia Page

Main five oceans division:

search term: coastal ecosystems Wikipedia Page

A marine coastal ecosystem is a marine ecosystem which occurs where the land meets the ocean. Worldwide there is about 620,000 kilometres (390,000 mi) of coastline. Coastal habitats extend to the margins of the continental shelves, occupying about 7 percent of the ocean surface area. Marine coastal ecosystems include many very different types of marine habitats, each with their own characteristics and species composition. They are characterized by high levels of biodiversity and productivity.

Coastal gannet colony

search term: primary production Wikipedia Page

In ecology, primary production is the synthesis of organic compounds from atmospheric or aqueous carbon dioxide. It principally occurs through the process of photosynthesis, which uses light as its source of energy, but it also occurs through chemosynthesis, which uses the oxidation or reduction of inorganic chemical compounds as its source of energy. Almost all life on Earth relies directly or indirectly on primary production. The organisms responsible for primary production are known as primary producers or autotrophs, and form the base of the food chain. In terrestrial ecoregions, these are mainly plants, while in aquatic ecoregions algae predominate in this role. Ecologists distinguish primary production as either net or gross, the former accounting for losses to processes such as cellular respiration, the latter not.

Global oceanic and terrestrial photoautotroph abundance, from September 1997 to August 2000. As an estimate of autotroph biomass, it is only a rough indicator of primary-production potential, and not an actual estimate of it. Provided by the SeaWiFS Project, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center and GeoEye.

search term: eutrophication Wikipedia Page

Eutrophication is a general term describing a process in which nutrients accumulate in a body of water, resulting in an increased growth of organisms that may deplete the oxygen in the water; ie. the process of too many plants growing on the surface of a river, lake, etc., often because chemicals that are used to help crops grow have been carried there by rain.[1][2] Eutrophication may occur naturally or as a result of human actions. Manmade, or cultural, eutrophication occurs when sewage, industrial wastewater, fertilizer runoff, and other nutrient sources are released into the environment.[3] Such nutrient pollution usually causes algal blooms and bacterial growth, resulting in the depletion of dissolved oxygen in water and causing substantial environmental degradation.[4] Many policies have been introduced to combat eutrophication, including the United Nations Development Program (UNDP)'s sustainability development goals.[5]

Eutrophication can cause harmful algal blooms like this one in a river near Chengdu, China.

search term: photosynthesis Wikipedia Page

Photosynthesis (/ˌfoʊtəˈsɪnθəsɪs/ FOH-tə-SINTH-ə-sis)[1] is a system of biological processes by which photopigment-bearing autotrophic organisms, such as most plants, algae and cyanobacteria, convert light energy — typically from sunlight — into the chemical energy necessary to fuel their metabolism. The term photosynthesis usually refers to oxygenic photosynthesis, a process that releases oxygen as a byproduct of water splitting. Photosynthetic organisms store the converted chemical energy within the bonds of intracellular organic compounds (complex compounds containing carbon), typically carbohydrates like sugars (mainly glucose, fructose and sucrose), starches, phytoglycogen and cellulose. When needing to use this stored energy, an organism's cells then metabolize the organic compounds through cellular respiration. Photosynthesis plays a critical role in producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth's atmosphere, and it supplies most of the biological energy necessary for complex life on Earth.[2]

Schematic of photosynthesis in plants. The carbohydrates produced are stored in or used by the plant.

search term: algal blooms Wikipedia Page

An algal bloom or algae bloom is a rapid increase or accumulation in the population of algae in fresh water or marine water systems. It may be a benign or harmful algal bloom.

A very large algae bloom in Lake Erie, North America, which can be seen from space

search term: Fisheries Wikipedia Page

Fishery can mean either the enterprise of raising or harvesting fish and other aquatic life[1] or, more commonly, the site where such enterprise takes place (a.k.a., fishing grounds).[2] Commercial fisheries include wild fisheries and fish farms, both in freshwater waterbodies (about 10% of all catch) and the oceans (about 90%). About 500 million people worldwide are economically dependent on fisheries. 171 million tonnes of fish were produced in 2016, but overfishing is an increasing problem, causing declines in some populations.

Salmon spawn in a salmon fishery within the Becharof Wilderness in Southwest Alaska.

search term: marine systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: species richness Wikipedia Page

Species richness is the number of different species represented in an ecological community, landscape or region.[1] Species richness is simply a count of species, and it does not take into account the abundances of the species or their relative abundance distributions. Species richness is sometimes considered synonymous with species diversity, but the formal metric species diversity takes into account both species richness and species evenness.

Global mammal richness (2015)

search term: invertebrates Wikipedia Page

Invertebrates are animals that neither develop nor retain a vertebral column (commonly known as a spine or backbone), which evolved from the notochord. It is a paraphyletic grouping including all animals excluding the chordate subphylum Vertebrata, i.e. vertebrates. Well-known phyla of invertebrates include arthropods, molluscs, annelids, echinoderms, flatworms, cnidarians, and sponges.

search term: Mediterranean Sea Wikipedia Page

For other countries, click here.

search term: Baltic Sea Wikipedia Page

The Baltic Sea is an arm of the Atlantic Ocean that is enclosed by the countries of Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia, Sweden, and the North and Central European Plain regions.[3] It is the world's largest brackish water basin.

search term: range shifts Wikipedia Page

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search term: marine heatwaves Wikipedia Page

A marine heatwave is a period of abnormally high sea surface temperatures (SST) compared to typical temperatures for a particular season and locale.[1] Marine heatwaves are caused by a variety of drivers. These include short term weather events such as fronts, intraseasonal events (30 to 90 days), annual, and decadal (10-year) modes like El Niño events, and human-caused climate change.[2][3][4] Such heatwaves affect marine ecosystems.[5][6] For example, heatwaves can lead to events such as coral bleaching, sea star wasting disease,[7][8] harmful algal blooms,[9] and mass mortality of benthic communities.[10] Unlike heatwaves on land, marine heatwaves can extend over vast areas, persist for weeks to months to years, and extend to subsurface levels.[11][12][13][14]

World map showing several marine heatwaves at different locations in August and September 2023. The marine heatwave west of South America is a prominent example.

search term: seagrasses Wikipedia Page

Seagrasses are the only flowering plants which grow in marine environments. There are about 60 species of fully marine seagrasses which belong to four families (Posidoniaceae, Zosteraceae, Hydrocharitaceae and Cymodoceaceae), all in the order Alismatales (in the clade of monocotyledons).[1] Seagrasses evolved from terrestrial plants which recolonised the ocean 70 to 100 million years ago.

search term: CMIP6 Wikipedia Page

In climatology, the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) is a collaborative framework designed to improve knowledge of climate change. It was organized in 1995 by the Working Group on Coupled Modelling (WGCM) of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP). It is developed in phases to foster the climate model improvements but also to support national and international assessments of climate change. A related project is the Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project (AMIP) for global coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation models (GCMs).

SSP-RF scenario matrix, utilizing CMIP6

search term: ecosystem structure Wikipedia Page

Ecosystem structure refers to the spatial arrangement and interrelationships among the components of an ecosystem, a specific type of system.

Vertical structure of tree density in a forest ecosystem

search term: fishing Wikipedia Page

Fishing is the activity of trying to catch fish. Fish are often caught as wildlife from the natural environment (freshwater or marine), but may also be caught from stocked bodies of water such as ponds, canals, park wetlands and reservoirs. Fishing techniques include trawling, longlining, jigging, hand-gathering, spearing, netting, angling, shooting and trapping, as well as more destructive and often illegal techniques such as electrocution, blasting and poisoning.

Fishing tools from the Mesolithic and Neolithic period

search term: coastal zones Wikipedia Page

A coast (coastline, shoreline, seashore) is the land next to the sea or the line that forms the boundary between the land and the ocean or a lake.[1][2] Coasts are influenced by the topography of the surrounding landscape and by aquatic erosion, such as that caused by waves. The geological composition of rock and soil dictates the type of shore that is created. Earth has about 620,000 km (390,000 mi) of coastline.

Sunrise on the Jersey Shore coastline at Spring Lake, New Jersey, U.S.

search term: low confidence Wikipedia Page

Analytic confidence is a rating employed by intelligence analysts to convey doubt to decision makers about a statement of estimative probability. The need for analytic confidence ratings arise from analysts' imperfect knowledge of a conceptual model. An analytic confidence rating pairs with a statement using a word of estimative probability to form a complete analytic statement. Scientific methods for determining analytic confidence remain in infancy.

Cover of a National Intelligence Estimate

search term: vulnerabilities Wikipedia Page

Vulnerability refers to "the quality or state of being exposed to the possibility of being attacked or harmed, either physically or emotionally."[1] The understanding of social and environmental vulnerability, as a methodological approach, involves the analysis of the risks and assets of disadvantaged groups, such as the elderly. The approach of vulnerability in itself brings great expectations of social policy and gerontological planning.[2][3] Types of vulnerability include social, cognitive, environmental, emotional or military.

CDC/ATSDR Social Vulnerability Index variables grouped into four themes

search term: human activities Wikipedia Page

1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias

Social interaction and creative expression are forms of human behavior

search term: mangroves Wikipedia Page

A mangrove is a shrub or tree that grows mainly in coastal saline or brackish water. Mangroves grow in an equatorial climate, typically along coastlines and tidal rivers. They have particular adaptations to take in extra oxygen and remove salt, allowing them to tolerate conditions that kill most plants. The term is also used for tropical coastal vegetation consisting of such species. Mangroves are taxonomically diverse due to convergent evolution in several plant families. They occur worldwide in the tropics and subtropics and even some temperate coastal areas, mainly between latitudes 30° N and 30° S, with the greatest mangrove area within 5° of the equator.[1][2] Mangrove plant families first appeared during the Late Cretaceous to Paleocene epochs and became widely distributed in part due to the movement of tectonic plates. The oldest known fossils of mangrove palm date to 75 million years ago.[2]

Mangroves are hardy shrubs and trees that thrive in salt water and have specialised adaptations so they can survive the volatile energies of intertidal zones along marine coasts.

search term: North Sea Wikipedia Page

The North Sea lies between Great Britain, Denmark, Norway, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, and France. A sea on the European continental shelf, it connects to the Atlantic Ocean through the English Channel in the south and the Norwegian Sea in the north. It is more than 970 kilometres (600 mi) long and 580 kilometres (360 mi) wide, covering 570,000 square kilometres (220,000 sq mi).

search term: physiology Wikipedia Page

Physiology (/ˌfɪziˈɒlədʒi/; from Ancient Greek φύσις (phúsis) 'nature, origin' and -λογία (-logía) 'study of')[1] is the scientific study of functions and mechanisms in a living system.[2][3] As a subdiscipline of biology, physiology focuses on how organisms, organ systems, individual organs, cells, and biomolecules carry out chemical and physical functions in a living system.[4] According to the classes of organisms, the field can be divided into medical physiology, animal physiology, plant physiology, cell physiology, and comparative physiology.[4]

Oil painting depicting Claude Bernard, the father of modern physiology, with his pupils

search term: fish Wikipedia Page

A fish is an aquatic, anamniotic, gill-bearing vertebrate animal with swimming fins and a hard skull, but lacking limbs with digits. Fish can be grouped into the more basal jawless fish and the more common jawed fish, the latter including all living cartilaginous and bony fish, as well as the extinct placoderms and acanthodians. In a break from the long tradition of grouping all fish into a single class (Pisces), modern phylogenetics views fish as a paraphyletic group which includes all vertebrates except tetrapods.

search term: corals Wikipedia Page

Corals are colonial marine invertebrates within the subphylum Anthozoa of the phylum Cnidaria. They typically form compact colonies of many identical individual polyps. Coral species include the important reef builders that inhabit tropical oceans and secrete calcium carbonate to form a hard skeleton.

Anatomy of a stony coral polyp

search term: coral reefs Wikipedia Page

A coral reef is an underwater ecosystem characterized by reef-building corals. Reefs are formed of colonies of coral polyps held together by calcium carbonate.[1] Most coral reefs are built from stony corals, whose polyps cluster in groups.

Biodiversity of a coral reef

search term: CMIP5 Wikipedia Page

In climatology, the Coupled Model Intercomparison Project (CMIP) is a collaborative framework designed to improve knowledge of climate change. It was organized in 1995 by the Working Group on Coupled Modelling (WGCM) of the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP). It is developed in phases to foster the climate model improvements but also to support national and international assessments of climate change. A related project is the Atmospheric Model Intercomparison Project (AMIP) for global coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation models (GCMs).

SSP-RF scenario matrix, utilizing CMIP6

search term: Shared Socioeconomic Pathways Wikipedia Page

Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) are climate change scenarios of projected socioeconomic global changes up to 2100 as defined in the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report on climate change in 2021.[2] They are used to derive greenhouse gas emissions scenarios with different climate policies.[3][4][5] The SSPs provide narratives describing alternative socio-economic developments. These storylines are a qualitative description of logic relating elements of the narratives to each other.[3] In terms of quantitative elements, they provide data accompanying the scenarios on national population, urbanization and GDP (per capita).[6] The SSPs can be quantified with various Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs) to explore possible future pathways both with regards to socioeconomic and climate pathways.[4][5][6]

Predicted atmospheric CO₂ concentrations for different shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) across the 21st century (projected by MAGICC7, a simple/reduced complexity climate model). Each data point represents an average of simulated values generated from five integrated assessment models.[1]

search term: seagrass meadows Wikipedia Page

A seagrass meadow or seagrass bed is an underwater ecosystem formed by seagrasses. Seagrasses are marine (saltwater) plants found in shallow coastal waters and in the brackish waters of estuaries. Seagrasses are flowering plants with stems and long green, grass-like leaves. They produce seeds and pollen and have roots and rhizomes which anchor them in seafloor sand.

Seagrass meadows are major carbon sinks and highly productive nurseries for many marine species

search term: ocean ecosystems Wikipedia Page

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search term: shellfish Wikipedia Page

Shellfish, in colloquial and fisheries usage, are exoskeleton-bearing aquatic invertebrates used as food, including various species of molluscs, crustaceans, and echinoderms. Although most kinds of shellfish are harvested from saltwater environments, some are found in freshwater. In addition, a few species of land crabs are eaten, for example Cardisoma guanhumi in the Caribbean. Shellfish are among the most common food allergens.[1]

Raw oysters opened and presented on a plate

search term: biomass Wikipedia Page

Biomass is a term used in several contexts: in the context of ecology it means living organisms,[1] and in the context of bioenergy it means matter from recently living (but now dead) organisms. In the latter context, there are variations in how biomass is defined, e.g., only from plants,[2] from plants and algae,[3] from plants and animals.[4] The vast majority of biomass used for bioenergy does come from plants and fecal matter. Bioenergy is a type of renewable energy that the bioenergy industry claims has the potential to assist with climate change mitigation.[5]

Biomass by life form

search term: coastal communities Wikipedia Page

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search term: fisheries Wikipedia Page

Fishery can mean either the enterprise of raising or harvesting fish and other aquatic life[1] or, more commonly, the site where such enterprise takes place (a.k.a., fishing grounds).[2] Commercial fisheries include wild fisheries and fish farms, both in freshwater waterbodies (about 10% of all catch) and the oceans (about 90%). About 500 million people worldwide are economically dependent on fisheries. 171 million tonnes of fish were produced in 2016, but overfishing is an increasing problem, causing declines in some populations.

Salmon spawn in a salmon fishery within the Becharof Wilderness in Southwest Alaska.

search term: Great Barrier Reef Wikipedia Page

The Great Barrier Reef is the world's largest coral reef system,[1][2] composed of over 2,900 individual reefs[3] and 900 islands stretching for over 2,300 kilometres (1,400 mi) over an area of approximately 344,400 square kilometres (133,000 sq mi).[4][5] The reef is located in the Coral Sea, off the coast of Queensland, Australia, separated from the coast by a channel 160 kilometres (100 mi) wide in places and over 61 metres (200 ft) deep.[6] The Great Barrier Reef can be seen from outer space and is the world's biggest single structure made by living organisms.[7] This reef structure is composed of and built by billions of tiny organisms, known as coral polyps.[8] It supports a wide diversity of life and was selected as a World Heritage Site in 1981.[1][2] CNN labelled it one of the Seven Natural Wonders of the World in 1997.[9] Australian World Heritage places included it in its list in 2007.[10] The Queensland National Trust named it a state icon of Queensland in 2006.[11]

search term: deltas Wikipedia Page

A river delta is a landform, archetypically triangular, created by the deposition of the sediments that are carried by the waters of a river, where the river merges with a body of slow-moving water or with a body of stagnant water.[1][2] The creation of a river delta occurs at the river mouth, where the river merges into an ocean, a sea, or an estuary, into a lake, a reservoir, or (more rarely) into another river that cannot carry away the sediment supplied by the feeding river. Etymologically, the term river delta derives from the triangular shape (Δ) of the uppercase Greek letter delta. In hydrology, the dimensions of a river delta are determined by the balance between the watershed processes that supply sediment and the watershed processes that redistribute, sequester, and export the supplied sediment into the receiving basin.[3][4]

A satellite perspective of the river delta of the Lena river, Russia.

search term: coastal systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: shipping Wikipedia Page

Freight transport, also referred to as freight forwarding, is the physical process of transporting commercial products and merchandise goods and cargo.[1] The term shipping originally referred to transport by sea but in American English, it has been extended to refer to transport by land or air (International English: "carriage") as well. "Logistics", a term borrowed from the military environment, is also used in the same sense.

This map of shipping routes illustrates the relative density of commercial shipping in the world's oceans.

search term: food availability Wikipedia Page

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search term: thermal stress Wikipedia Page

In mechanics and thermodynamics, thermal stress is mechanical stress created by any change in temperature of a material. These stresses can lead to fracturing or plastic deformation depending on the other variables of heating, which include material types and constraints.[1] Temperature gradients, thermal expansion or contraction and thermal shocks are things that can lead to thermal stress. This type of stress is highly dependent on the thermal expansion coefficient which varies from material to material. In general, the greater the temperature change, the higher the level of stress that can occur. Thermal shock can result from a rapid change in temperature, resulting in cracking or shattering.

Example of deformation induced by thermal stress on the rails

search term: confidence Wikipedia Page

Confidence is the feeling of belief or trust that a person or thing is reliable.[1] Self-confidence is trust in oneself. Self-confidence involves a positive belief that one can generally accomplish what one wishes to do in the future.[2] Self-confidence is not the same as self-esteem, which is an evaluation of one's worth. Self-confidence is related to self-efficacy—belief in one's ability to accomplish a specific task or goal.[3][4] Confidence can be a self-fulfilling prophecy, as those without it may fail because they lack it, and those with it may succeed because they have it rather than because of an innate ability or skill.

Photo captioned "Bashful" in a 1916–1917 yearbook, Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin

search term: R Wikipedia Page

R, or r, is the eighteenth letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its name in English is ar (pronounced /ˈɑːr/ ⓘ), plural ars.[1]

search term: global climate change Wikipedia Page

Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate. The current rise in global temperatures is driven by human activities, especially fossil fuel (coal, oil and natural gas) burning since the Industrial Revolution.[3][4] Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices release greenhouse gases.[5] These gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight, warming the lower atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, the primary gas driving global warming, has increased in concentration by about 50% since the pre-industrial era to levels not seen for millions of years.[6]

Global surface temperature reconstruction over the past 2000 years using proxy data from tree rings, corals, and ice cores in blue.[42] Directly observed data is in red.[43]

search term: hydropower production Wikipedia Page

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search term: hydrological cycle Wikipedia Page

The water cycle (or hydrologic cycle or hydrological cycle) is a biogeochemical cycle that involves the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth across different reservoirs. The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time.[2] However, the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, salt water and atmospheric water is variable and depends on climatic variables. The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere due to a variety of physical and chemical processes. The processes that drive these movements, or fluxes, are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, sublimation, infiltration, surface runoff, and subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes through different phases: liquid, solid (ice) and vapor. The ocean plays a key role in the water cycle as it is the source of 86% of global evaporation.[3]

A detailed diagram depicting the global water cycle. The direction of movement of water between reservoirs tends towards upwards movement through evapotranspiration and downward movement through gravity. The diagram also shows how human water use impacts where water is stored and how it moves.[1]

search term: streamflow Wikipedia Page

Streamflow, or channel runoff, is the flow of water in streams and other channels, and is a major element of the water cycle. It is one runoff component, the movement of water from the land to waterbodies, the other component being surface runoff. Water flowing in channels comes from surface runoff from adjacent hillslopes, from groundwater flow out of the ground, and from water discharged from pipes. The discharge of water flowing in a channel is measured using stream gauges or can be estimated by the Manning equation. The record of flow over time is called a hydrograph. Flooding occurs when the volume of water exceeds the capacity of the channel.

Mississippi River streamflow in log10 cubic meters per second measured daily at Vicksburg, MS, US.[6]

search term: transpiration Wikipedia Page

Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from aerial parts, such as leaves, stems and flowers. It is a passive process that requires no energy expense by the plant.[1] Transpiration also cools plants, changes osmotic pressure of cells, and enables mass flow of mineral nutrients. When water uptake by the roots is less than the water lost to the atmosphere by evaporation, plants close small pores called stomata to decrease water loss, which slows down nutrient uptake and decreases CO2 absorption from the atmosphere limiting metabolic processes, photosynthesis, and growth.[2]

Overview of transpiration:

1. Water is passively transported into the roots and then into the xylem.
2. The forces of cohesion and adhesion cause the water molecules to form a column in the xylem.
3. Water moves from the xylem into the mesophyll cells, evaporates from their surfaces and leaves the plant by diffusion through the stomata

search term: water use Wikipedia Page

A water footprint shows the extent of water use in relation to consumption by people.[1] The water footprint of an individual, community, or business is defined as the total volume of fresh water used to produce the goods and services consumed by the individual or community or produced by the business. Water use is measured in water volume consumed (evaporated) and/or polluted per unit of time. A water footprint can be calculated for any well-defined group of consumers (e.g., an individual, family, village, city, province, state, or nation) or producers (e.g., a public organization, private enterprise, or economic sector), for a single process (such as growing rice) or for any product or service.[2]

Infographic of water footprints around the world

search term: groundwater storage Wikipedia Page

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search term: agronomic practices Wikipedia Page

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search term: heavy precipitation Wikipedia Page

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search term: central Asia Wikipedia Page

Central Asia is a region of Asia consisting of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.[4] The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian suffix "-stan" (meaning 'land') in both respective native languages and most other languages. The region is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the southwest, European Russia to the northwest, China and Mongolia to the east,[5] Afghanistan and Iran to the south, and Siberia to the north. Together, the five Central Asian countries have a total population of around 76 million.

search term: Irrigation Wikipedia Page

Irrigation is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops, landscape plants, and lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has been developed by many cultures around the world. Irrigation helps to grow crops, maintain landscapes, and revegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and during times of below-average rainfall. In addition to these uses, irrigation is also employed to protect crops from frost,[1] suppress weed growth in grain fields, and prevent soil consolidation. It is also used to cool livestock, reduce dust, dispose of sewage, and support mining operations. Drainage, which involves the removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given location, is often studied in conjunction with irrigation.

Irrigation of agricultural fields in Andalusia, Spain. Irrigation canal on the left.

search term: river basins Wikipedia Page

A drainage basin is an area of land in which all flowing surface water converges to a single point, such as a river mouth, or flows into another body of water, such as a lake or ocean. A basin is separated from adjacent basins by a perimeter, the drainage divide,[1] made up of a succession of elevated features, such as ridges and hills. A basin may consist of smaller basins that merge at river confluences, forming a hierarchical pattern.[2]

The Mississippi River drains the largest area of any U.S. river, much of it agricultural regions. Agricultural runoff and other water pollution that flows to the outlet is the cause of the hypoxic or dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico.

search term: cultural water uses Wikipedia Page

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search term: WEF Wikipedia Page

The World Economic Forum (WEF) is an international advocacy non-governmental organization and think tank, based in Cologny, Canton of Geneva, Switzerland. It was founded on 24 January 1971 by German engineer Klaus Schwab.

search term: sediment load Wikipedia Page

Stream load is a geologic term referring to the solid matter carried by a stream (Strahler and Strahler, 2006). Erosion and bed shear stress continually remove mineral material from the bed and banks of the stream channel, adding this material to the regular flow of water. The amount of solid load that a stream can carry, or stream capacity, is measured in metric tons per day, passing a given location. Stream capacity is dependent upon the stream's velocity, the amount of water flow, and the gradation (because streams that occur on steeper slopes tend to have greater flow and velocity) (Strahler and Strahler, 2006).

Streams such as this carry solid material as a result of erosion.

search term: water use efficiency Wikipedia Page

Water-use efficiency (WUE) refers to the ratio of plant biomass to water lost by transpiration, can be defined either at the leaf, at the whole plant or a population/stand/field level:

search term: water sources Wikipedia Page

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search term: hydrological changes Wikipedia Page

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search term: GCMs Wikipedia Page

search term: groundwater resources Wikipedia Page

Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful for humans, for example as a source of drinking water supply or irrigation water. These resources can be either freshwater from natural sources, or water produced artificially from other sources, such as from reclaimed water (wastewater) or desalinated water (seawater). 97% of the water on Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly over two-thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps.[2] The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air.[3] Natural sources of fresh water include frozen water, groundwater, surface water, and under river flow. People use water resources for agricultural, household, and industrial activities.

Lake Chungará and Parinacota volcano in northern Chile

search term: residual impacts Wikipedia Page

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search term: Water Security Wikipedia Page

The aim of water security is to maximize the benefits of water for humans and ecosystems. The second aim is to limit the risks of destructive impacts of water to an acceptable level.[1][2] These risks include too much water (flood), too little water (drought and water scarcity), and poor quality (polluted) water.[1] People who live with a high level of water security always have access to "an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihood, and production".[2] For example, access to water, sanitation, and hygiene services is one part of water security.[3] Some organizations use the term "water security" more narrowly, referring only to water supply aspects.

Ethiopia's move to fill the GERD dam's reservoir could reduce Nile flows by as much as 25% and devastate Egyptian farmlands.[27]

search term: annual mean precipitation Wikipedia Page

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search term: WaSH Wikipedia Page

Wash or the Wash may refer to:

search term: traditional peoples Wikipedia Page

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search term: outcomes Wikipedia Page

Outcome may refer to:

search term: cooperation Wikipedia Page

Cooperation (now much less often written as co-operation in British English[1][2] and, with a varied usage along time,[3] coöperation) takes place when a group of organisms works or acts together for a collective benefit to the group as opposed to working in competition for selfish individual benefit. In biology, many animal and plant species cooperate both with other members of their own species and with members of other species with whom they have (symbiotic or mutualistic) relationships.[4]

Many animal species cooperate with each other in mutual symbiosis. One example is the ocellaris clownfish, which dwells among the tentacles of Ritteri sea anemones. The anemones provide the clownfish with protection from their predators (which cannot tolerate the stings of the sea anemone's tentacles), while the fish defend the anemones against butterflyfish (which eat anemones)

search term: adaptation outcomes Wikipedia Page

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search term: Intergovernmental Panel on Wikipedia Page

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search term: snowmelt Wikipedia Page

In hydrology, snowmelt is surface runoff produced from melting snow. It can also be used to describe the period or season during which such runoff is produced. Water produced by snowmelt is an important part of the annual water cycle in many parts of the world, in some cases contributing high fractions of the annual runoff in a watershed. Predicting snowmelt runoff from a drainage basin may be a part of designing water control projects. Rapid snowmelt can cause flooding. If the snowmelt is then frozen, very dangerous conditions and accidents can occur, introducing the need for salt to melt the ice.

Timelapse of Snowmelt over Okanagan Lake in British Columbia

search term: Water security Wikipedia Page

The aim of water security is to maximize the benefits of water for humans and ecosystems. The second aim is to limit the risks of destructive impacts of water to an acceptable level.[1][2] These risks include too much water (flood), too little water (drought and water scarcity), and poor quality (polluted) water.[1] People who live with a high level of water security always have access to "an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihood, and production".[2] For example, access to water, sanitation, and hygiene services is one part of water security.[3] Some organizations use the term "water security" more narrowly, referring only to water supply aspects.

Ethiopia's move to fill the GERD dam's reservoir could reduce Nile flows by as much as 25% and devastate Egyptian farmlands.[27]

search term: reforestation Wikipedia Page

Reforestation is the practice of restoring previously existing forests and woodlands that have been destroyed or damaged. The prior forest destruction might have happened through deforestation, clearcutting or wildfires. Three important purposes of reforestation programs are for harvesting of wood, for climate change mitigation, and for ecosystem and habitat restoration purposes. One method of reforestation is to establish tree plantations, also called plantation forests. They cover about 131 million ha worldwide, which is 3% of the global forest area and 45% of the total area of planted forests.[1]

A forest, six years after reforestation efforts in Panama.

search term: Water Wikipedia Page

Water is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula
H2O. It is a transparent, tasteless, odorless,[c] and nearly colorless chemical substance. It is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms in which it acts as a solvent. Water, being a polar molecule, undergoes strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding which is a large contributor to its physical and chemical properties.[20] It is vital for all known forms of life, despite not providing food energy or being an organic micronutrient. Due to its presence in all organisms, its chemical stability, its worldwide abundance, and its strong polarity relative to its small molecular size, water is often referred to as the "universal solvent".[21]

search term: projected Wikipedia Page

Projected is an American rock supergroup consisting of Sevendust members John Connolly and Vinnie Hornsby, Alter Bridge and Creed drummer Scott Phillips, and former Submersed and current Tremonti guitarist Eric Friedman. The band released their album, Human, in June 2012, before falling into inactivity as members returned to their respective bands in late 2012. The band released their second studio album, the double album, Ignite My Insanity, in July 2017. They reconvened in early 2020 and finished recording their third album in July 2020.

search term: drinking water Wikipedia Page

Drinking water or potable water is water that is safe for ingestion, either when drunk directly in liquid form or consumed indirectly through food preparation. It is often (but not always) supplied through taps, in which case it is also called tap water.

Drinking water that is supplied through a tap (tap water)

search term: Soil Moisture Wikipedia Page

Soil moisture is the water content of the soil. It can be expressed in terms of volume or weight. Soil moisture measurement can be based on in situ probes (e.g., capacitance probes, neutron probes) or remote sensing methods.[1][2]

A historic surface soil moisture change in the Horn of Africa from August 2020 - December 2022

search term: low flows Wikipedia Page

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search term: hydrological models Wikipedia Page

A hydrologic model is a simplification of a real-world system (e.g., surface water, soil water, wetland, groundwater, estuary) that aids in understanding, predicting, and managing water resources. Both the flow and quality of water are commonly studied using hydrologic models.

MODFLOW, a computational groundwater flow model based on methods developed by the US Geological Survey.

search term: CMIP5 GCMs Wikipedia Page

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search term: household water insecurity Wikipedia Page

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search term: irrigation expansion Wikipedia Page

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search term: maladaptive outcomes Wikipedia Page

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search term: NbS Wikipedia Page

search term: aquifers Wikipedia Page

An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing material consisting of permeable or fractured rock, or of unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or silt).[1] Aquifers vary greatly in their characteristics. The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology. Related concepts include aquitard, a bed of low permeability along an aquifer, and aquiclude (or aquifuge), a solid and impermeable region underlying or overlying an aquifer, the pressure of which could lead to the formation of a confined aquifer. Aquifers can be classified as saturated versus unsaturated; aquifers versus aquitards; confined versus unconfined; isotropic versus anisotropic; porous, karst, or fractured; and transboundary aquifer.

Schematic of an aquifer showing confined zones, groundwater travel times, a spring and a well

search term: WaSH services Wikipedia Page

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search term: hydrological extremes Wikipedia Page

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search term: water adaptation Wikipedia Page

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search term: carbon capture Wikipedia Page

Carbon capture may refer to:

search term: World Economic Forum Wikipedia Page

The World Economic Forum (WEF) is an international advocacy non-governmental organization and think tank, based in Cologny, Canton of Geneva, Switzerland. It was founded on 24 January 1971 by German engineer Klaus Schwab.

search term: Water insecurity Wikipedia Page

The aim of water security is to maximize the benefits of water for humans and ecosystems. The second aim is to limit the risks of destructive impacts of water to an acceptable level.[1][2] These risks include too much water (flood), too little water (drought and water scarcity), and poor quality (polluted) water.[1] People who live with a high level of water security always have access to "an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihood, and production".[2] For example, access to water, sanitation, and hygiene services is one part of water security.[3] Some organizations use the term "water security" more narrowly, referring only to water supply aspects.

Ethiopia's move to fill the GERD dam's reservoir could reduce Nile flows by as much as 25% and devastate Egyptian farmlands.[27]

search term: environmental flow requirements Wikipedia Page

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search term: global hydrological models Wikipedia Page

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search term: aerosols Wikipedia Page

An aerosol is a suspension of fine solid particles or liquid droplets in air or another gas.[1] Aerosols can be generated from natural or human causes. The term aerosol commonly refers to the mixture of particulates in air, and not to the particulate matter alone.[2] Examples of natural aerosols are fog, mist or dust. Examples of human caused aerosols include particulate air pollutants, mist from the discharge at hydroelectric dams, irrigation mist, perfume from atomizers, smoke, dust, sprayed pesticides, and medical treatments for respiratory illnesses.[3]

Mist and fog are aerosols

search term: glacier melt Wikipedia Page

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search term: CO2 concentrations Wikipedia Page

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search term: Permafrost Wikipedia Page

Permafrost (from perma- 'permanent' and frost) is soil or underwater sediment which continuously remains below 0 °C (32 °F) for two years or more; the oldest permafrost has been continuously frozen for around 700,000 years.[1] Whilst the shallowest permafrost has a vertical extent of below a meter (3 ft), the deepest is greater than 1,500 m (4,900 ft).[2] Similarly, the area of individual permafrost zones may be limited to narrow mountain summits or extend across vast Arctic regions.[3] The ground beneath glaciers and ice sheets is not usually defined as permafrost, so on land, permafrost is generally located beneath a so-called active layer of soil which freezes and thaws depending on the season.[4]

search term: Belgium Wikipedia Page

Belgium,[b] officially the Kingdom of Belgium,[c] is a country in Northwestern Europe. Situated in a coastal lowland region known as the Low Countries, it is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeast, France to the south, and the North Sea to the west. Belgium covers an area of 30,689 km2 (11,849 sq mi)[5] and has a population of more than 11.8 million;[8] its population density of 383/km2 (990/sq mi) ranks 22nd in the world and sixth in Europe. The capital and largest metropolitan region is Brussels;[d] other major cities are Antwerp, Ghent, Charleroi, Liège, Bruges, Namur, and Leuven.

Gallia Belgica at the time of Julius Caesar's conquest of Gaul in 54 BCE

search term: North China Plain Wikipedia Page

The North China Plain (simplified Chinese: 华北平原; traditional Chinese: 華北平原; pinyin: Huáběi Píngyuán) is a large-scale downfaulted rift basin formed in the late Paleogene and Neogene and then modified by the deposits of the Yellow River. It is the largest alluvial plain of China. The plain is bordered to the north by the Yanshan Mountains, to the west by the Taihang Mountains, to the south by the Dabie Mountains, and to the east by the Yellow Sea and Bohai Sea. The Yellow River flows through the plain, before its waters empty into the Bohai Sea.

Jinan, the capital of Shandong province

search term: cropping patterns Wikipedia Page

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search term: Switzerland Wikipedia Page

in Europe (green and dark grey)

Founded in 44 BC by Lucius Munatius Plancus, Augusta Raurica (near Basel) was the first Roman settlement on the Rhine and is now among the most important archaeological sites in Switzerland.[39]

search term: western Europe Wikipedia Page

Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's extent varies depending on context. The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the Western half of the ancient Mediterranean world, the Latin West of the Roman Empire, and "Western Christendom". Beginning with the Renaissance and the Age of Discovery, roughly from the 15th century, the concept of Europe as "the West" slowly became distinguished from and eventually replaced the dominant use of "Christendom" as the preferred endonym within the area.[1] By the Age of Enlightenment and the Industrial Revolution, the concepts of "Eastern Europe" and "Western Europe" were more regularly used.[2] The distinctiveness of Western Europe became most apparent during the Cold War, when Europe was divided for 40 years by the Iron Curtain into the Western Bloc and Eastern Bloc, each characterised by distinct political and economical systems.[3]

Schism of 1054 (East–West Schism) in Christianity[4][5]

search term: Cyclone Amphan Wikipedia Page

Super Cyclonic Storm Amphan (/ˈʌm.pʌn/ um-pun)[1] was an extremely powerful and catastrophic tropical cyclone that caused widespread damage in Eastern India, specifically in West Bengal and Odisha, and in Bangladesh, in May 2020. It was the strongest tropical cyclone to strike the Ganges Delta. It was the strongest tropical cyclone to hit India since 1999. It was a rare cyclone that lashed northern Bangladesh from Rajshahi to Rangpur in the early hours of 21 May with strong winds. It caused severe damage to mango production of Rajshahi and Rangpur. It was also the fourth super cyclone that hit West Bengal and Kolkata as well as being one of the strongest storms to impact the area.[2][3][4] Causing over US$15 billion of damage, Amphan is also the costliest cyclone ever recorded in the North Indian Ocean, surpassing the record held by Nargis of 2008.[5][6]

search term: inundation Wikipedia Page

A flood is an overflow of water (or rarely other fluids) that submerges land that is usually dry.[1] In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods are of significant concern in agriculture, civil engineering and public health. Human changes to the environment often increase the intensity and frequency of flooding. Examples for human changes are land use changes such as deforestation and removal of wetlands, changes in waterway course or flood controls such as with levees. Global environmental issues also influence causes of floods, namely climate change which causes an intensification of the water cycle and sea level rise.[2]: 1517 For example, climate change makes extreme weather events more frequent and stronger.[3] This leads to more intense floods and increased flood risk.[4][5]

Urban flooding in a street in Morpeth, England, 2008

search term: Desalination Wikipedia Page

Desalination is a process that removes mineral components from saline water. More generally, desalination is the removal of salts and minerals from a substance.[1] One example is soil desalination. This is important for agriculture. It is possible to desalinate saltwater, especially sea water, to produce water for human consumption or irrigation, producing brine as a by-product.[2] Many seagoing ships and submarines use desalination. Modern interest in desalination mostly focuses on cost-effective provision of fresh water for human use. Along with recycled wastewater, it is one of the few water resources independent of rainfall.[3]

Reverse osmosis desalination plant in Barcelona, Spain

search term: disaster events Wikipedia Page

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search term: socioeconomic factors Wikipedia Page

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search term: heavy rainfall events Wikipedia Page

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search term: meteorological drought Wikipedia Page

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search term: climate risk reduction Wikipedia Page

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search term: water use sectors Wikipedia Page

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search term: global population Wikipedia Page

In world demographics, the world population is the total number of humans currently alive. It was estimated by the United Nations to have exceeded eight billion in mid-November 2022. It took around 300,000 years of human prehistory and history for the human population to reach a billion and only 218 more years to reach 8 billion.

High, medium, and low projections of the future human world population[1]

search term: snow cover Wikipedia Page

Snow consists of individual ice crystals that grow while suspended in the atmosphere—usually within clouds—and then fall, accumulating on the ground where they undergo further changes.[2] It consists of frozen crystalline water throughout its life cycle, starting when, under suitable conditions, the ice crystals form in the atmosphere, increase to millimeter size, precipitate and accumulate on surfaces, then metamorphose in place, and ultimately melt, slide, or sublimate away.

search term: SRCCL Wikipedia Page

The United Nations' Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) Special Report on Climate Change and Land (SRCCL), also known as the "Special Report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems",[1][2] is a landmark study from 2019 by 107 experts from 52 countries.[3][4] The SRCCL provides a comprehensive overview of the entire land-climate system for the first time and decided to enlist land as a "critical resource".[5] The IPCC's 50th session (IPCC-50) formally adopted the SRCCL's Summary for policymakers (SPM) and approved the underlying report.[5][6] The SPM and the full text of Special Report on Climate Change and Land—in an unedited form—were released on 8 August 2019. The report is over 1,300 pages long and includes the work of 107 experts from 52 countries.

search term: physical water scarcity Wikipedia Page

Water scarcity (closely related to water stress or water crisis) is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two types of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.[2]: 560 Physical water scarcity is where there is not enough water to meet all demands. This includes water needed for ecosystems to function. Regions with a desert climate often face physical water scarcity.[3] Central Asia, West Asia, and North Africa are examples of arid areas. Economic water scarcity results from a lack of investment in infrastructure or technology to draw water from rivers, aquifers, or other water sources. It also results from weak human capacity to meet water demand.[2]: 560 Many people in sub-Saharan Africa are living with economic water scarcity.[4]: 11

Map of global water stress (a symptom of water scarcity) in 2019. Water stress is the ratio of water use relative to water availability and is therefore a demand-driven scarcity.[1]

search term: CMIP5 climate models Wikipedia Page

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search term: evaporation Wikipedia Page

Evaporation is a type of vaporization that occurs on the surface of a liquid as it changes into the gas phase.[1] A high concentration of the evaporating substance in the surrounding gas significantly slows down evaporation, such as when humidity affects rate of evaporation of water.[2] When the molecules of the liquid collide, they transfer energy to each other based on how they collide. When a molecule near the surface absorbs enough energy to overcome the vapor pressure, it will escape and enter the surrounding air as a gas.[3] When evaporation occurs, the energy removed from the vaporized liquid will reduce the temperature of the liquid, resulting in evaporative cooling.[4]

Aerosol of microscopic water droplets suspended in the air above a cup of hot tea after the water vapor has sufficiently cooled and condensed. Water vapor is an invisible gas, but the clouds of condensed droplets refract and scatter the sunlight and are thus visible.

search term: CO2 Wikipedia Page

Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula CO2. It is made up of molecules that each have one carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen atoms. It is found in a gas state at room temperature and at normally-encountered concentrations it is odorless. As the source of carbon in the carbon cycle, atmospheric CO2 is the primary carbon source for life on Earth. In the air, carbon dioxide is transparent to visible light but absorbs infrared radiation, acting as a greenhouse gas. Carbon dioxide is soluble in water and is found in groundwater, lakes, ice caps, and seawater.

search term: cryosphere Wikipedia Page

The cryosphere is an umbrella term for those portions of Earth's surface where water is in solid form. This includes sea ice, ice on lakes or rivers, snow, glaciers, ice caps, ice sheets, and frozen ground (which includes permafrost). Thus, there is an overlap with the hydrosphere. The cryosphere is an integral part of the global climate system. It also has important feedbacks on the climate system. These feedbacks come from the cryosphere's influence on surface energy and moisture fluxes, clouds, the water cycle, atmospheric and oceanic circulation.

Overview of the cryosphere and its larger components[1]

search term: snowmelt floods Wikipedia Page

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search term: hydrological drought Wikipedia Page

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search term: Anthropogenic influence Wikipedia Page

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search term: water consumption Wikipedia Page

A water footprint shows the extent of water use in relation to consumption by people.[1] The water footprint of an individual, community, or business is defined as the total volume of fresh water used to produce the goods and services consumed by the individual or community or produced by the business. Water use is measured in water volume consumed (evaporated) and/or polluted per unit of time. A water footprint can be calculated for any well-defined group of consumers (e.g., an individual, family, village, city, province, state, or nation) or producers (e.g., a public organization, private enterprise, or economic sector), for a single process (such as growing rice) or for any product or service.[2]

Infographic of water footprints around the world

search term: agricultural drought Wikipedia Page

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search term: drought events Wikipedia Page

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search term: Groundwater Wikipedia Page

Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available fresh water in the world is groundwater.[1] A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table. Groundwater is recharged from the surface; it may discharge from the surface naturally at springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal, and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, also called groundwater hydrology.

An illustration showing groundwater in aquifers (in blue) (1, 5 and 6) below the water table (4), and three different wells (7, 8 and 9) dug to reach it.

search term: sedimentation Wikipedia Page

Sedimentation is the deposition of sediments.[1] It takes place when particles in suspension settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained and come to rest against a barrier. This is due to their motion through the fluid in response to the forces acting on them: these forces can be due to gravity, centrifugal acceleration, or electromagnetism. Settling is the falling of suspended particles through the liquid, whereas sedimentation is the final result of the settling process.

Settling pond for iron particles at water works

search term: semiarid regions Wikipedia Page

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search term: ensemble members Wikipedia Page

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search term: subtropics Wikipedia Page

The subtropical zones or subtropics are geographical and climate zones immediately to the north and south of the tropics. Geographically part of the temperate zones of both hemispheres, they cover the middle latitudes from 23°26′09.4″ (or 23.43594°) to approximately 35° to 40° north and south.[1] The horse latitudes lie within this range.

Areas of the world with subtropical climates

search term: global GDP Wikipedia Page

The gross world product (GWP), also known as gross world income (GWI),[1] is the combined gross national income (previously, the "gross national product") of all the countries in the world. Because imports and exports balance exactly when considering the whole world, this also equals the total global gross domestic product (GDP).[nb 1] According to the World Bank, the 2013 nominal GWP was approximately 75.59 trillion United States dollars.[2] In 2017, according to the CIA's World Factbook, the GWP was around $80.27 trillion in nominal terms and totaled approximately 127.8 trillion international dollars in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP).[3] The per capita PPP GWP in 2017 was approximately 17,500 international dollars according to the World Factbook.[3] According to the World Bank, the 2020 GWP in current dollars was approximately $84.705 trillion.[4]

Contribution (in points) of the growth of countries to that of the world in 2011.

search term: global agricultural models Wikipedia Page

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search term: hygiene Wikipedia Page

Hygiene is a set of practices performed to preserve health. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), "Hygiene refers to conditions and practices that help to maintain health and prevent the spread of diseases."[2] Personal hygiene refers to maintaining the body's cleanliness. Hygiene activities can be grouped into the following: home and everyday hygiene, personal hygiene, medical hygiene, sleep hygiene, and food hygiene. Home and every day hygiene includes hand washing, respiratory hygiene, food hygiene at home, hygiene in the kitchen, hygiene in the bathroom, laundry hygiene, and medical hygiene at home.

Washing one's hands,[1] a form of hygiene, is the most effective way to prevent the spread of infectious diseases.

search term: desalinated water Wikipedia Page

Desalination is a process that removes mineral components from saline water. More generally, desalination is the removal of salts and minerals from a substance.[1] One example is soil desalination. This is important for agriculture. It is possible to desalinate saltwater, especially sea water, to produce water for human consumption or irrigation, producing brine as a by-product.[2] Many seagoing ships and submarines use desalination. Modern interest in desalination mostly focuses on cost-effective provision of fresh water for human use. Along with recycled wastewater, it is one of the few water resources independent of rainfall.[3]

Reverse osmosis desalination plant in Barcelona, Spain

search term: dams Wikipedia Page

A dam is a barrier that stops or restricts the flow of surface water or underground streams. Reservoirs created by dams not only suppress floods but also provide water for activities such as irrigation, human consumption, industrial use, aquaculture, and navigability. Hydropower is often used in conjunction with dams to generate electricity. A dam can also be used to collect or store water which can be evenly distributed between locations. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates or levees (also known as dikes) are used to manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions.

The Edersee Dam in Hesse, Germany

search term: soil moisture Wikipedia Page

Soil moisture is the water content of the soil. It can be expressed in terms of volume or weight. Soil moisture measurement can be based on in situ probes (e.g., capacitance probes, neutron probes) or remote sensing methods.[1][2]

A historic surface soil moisture change in the Horn of Africa from August 2020 - December 2022

search term: water cycle Wikipedia Page

The water cycle (or hydrologic cycle or hydrological cycle) is a biogeochemical cycle that involves the continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth across different reservoirs. The mass of water on Earth remains fairly constant over time.[2] However, the partitioning of the water into the major reservoirs of ice, fresh water, salt water and atmospheric water is variable and depends on climatic variables. The water moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the ocean to the atmosphere due to a variety of physical and chemical processes. The processes that drive these movements, or fluxes, are evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation, sublimation, infiltration, surface runoff, and subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes through different phases: liquid, solid (ice) and vapor. The ocean plays a key role in the water cycle as it is the source of 86% of global evaporation.[3]

A detailed diagram depicting the global water cycle. The direction of movement of water between reservoirs tends towards upwards movement through evapotranspiration and downward movement through gravity. The diagram also shows how human water use impacts where water is stored and how it moves.[1]

search term: water sector Wikipedia Page

The water industry provides drinking water[1] and wastewater services (including sewage treatment) to residential, commercial, and industrial sectors of the economy. Typically public utilities operate water supply networks. The water industry does not include manufacturers and suppliers of bottled water, which is part of the beverage production and belongs to the food sector.

Drinking water

search term: adaptation response Wikipedia Page

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search term: irrigation Wikipedia Page

Irrigation is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops, landscape plants, and lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has been developed by many cultures around the world. Irrigation helps to grow crops, maintain landscapes, and revegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and during times of below-average rainfall. In addition to these uses, irrigation is also employed to protect crops from frost,[1] suppress weed growth in grain fields, and prevent soil consolidation. It is also used to cool livestock, reduce dust, dispose of sewage, and support mining operations. Drainage, which involves the removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given location, is often studied in conjunction with irrigation.

Irrigation of agricultural fields in Andalusia, Spain. Irrigation canal on the left.

search term: water demand Wikipedia Page

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search term: hydropower generation Wikipedia Page

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search term: runoff Wikipedia Page

Runoff, run-off or RUNOFF may refer to:

search term: northern Europe Wikipedia Page

The northern region of Europe has several definitions. A restrictive definition may describe northern Europe as being roughly north of the southern coast of the Baltic Sea, which is about 54°N, or may be based on other geographical factors such as climate and ecology.

A composed satellite photograph of islands and continental areas in and surrounding the North Sea and Baltic Sea

search term: water insecurity Wikipedia Page

The aim of water security is to maximize the benefits of water for humans and ecosystems. The second aim is to limit the risks of destructive impacts of water to an acceptable level.[1][2] These risks include too much water (flood), too little water (drought and water scarcity), and poor quality (polluted) water.[1] People who live with a high level of water security always have access to "an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihood, and production".[2] For example, access to water, sanitation, and hygiene services is one part of water security.[3] Some organizations use the term "water security" more narrowly, referring only to water supply aspects.

Ethiopia's move to fill the GERD dam's reservoir could reduce Nile flows by as much as 25% and devastate Egyptian farmlands.[27]

search term: water security Wikipedia Page

The aim of water security is to maximize the benefits of water for humans and ecosystems. The second aim is to limit the risks of destructive impacts of water to an acceptable level.[1][2] These risks include too much water (flood), too little water (drought and water scarcity), and poor quality (polluted) water.[1] People who live with a high level of water security always have access to "an acceptable quantity and quality of water for health, livelihood, and production".[2] For example, access to water, sanitation, and hygiene services is one part of water security.[3] Some organizations use the term "water security" more narrowly, referring only to water supply aspects.

Ethiopia's move to fill the GERD dam's reservoir could reduce Nile flows by as much as 25% and devastate Egyptian farmlands.[27]

search term: extreme precipitation Wikipedia Page

Extreme weather includes unexpected, unusual, severe, or unseasonal weather; weather at the extremes of the historical distribution—the range that has been seen in the past. Extreme events are based on a location's recorded weather history. The main types of extreme weather include heat waves, cold waves, droughts, and heavy precipitation or storm events, such as tropical cyclones. Extreme weather can have various effects, from natural hazards such as floods and landslides to social costs on human health and the economy. Severe weather is a particular type of extreme weather which poses risks to life and property.

A tornado is an example of an extreme weather event.

search term: groundwater Wikipedia Page

Groundwater is the water present beneath Earth's surface in rock and soil pore spaces and in the fractures of rock formations. About 30 percent of all readily available fresh water in the world is groundwater.[1] A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table. Groundwater is recharged from the surface; it may discharge from the surface naturally at springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands. Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal, and industrial use by constructing and operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is hydrogeology, also called groundwater hydrology.

An illustration showing groundwater in aquifers (in blue) (1, 5 and 6) below the water table (4), and three different wells (7, 8 and 9) dug to reach it.

search term: soil erosion Wikipedia Page

Soil erosion is the denudation or wearing away of the upper layer of soil. It is a form of soil degradation. This natural process is caused by the dynamic activity of erosive agents, that is, water, ice (glaciers), snow, air (wind), plants, and animals (including humans). In accordance with these agents, erosion is sometimes divided into water erosion, glacial erosion, snow erosion, wind (aeolian) erosion, zoogenic erosion and anthropogenic erosion such as tillage erosion.[1] Soil erosion may be a slow process that continues relatively unnoticed, or it may occur at an alarming rate causing a serious loss of topsoil. The loss of soil from farmland may be reflected in reduced crop production potential, lower surface water quality and damaged drainage networks. Soil erosion could also cause sinkholes.

An actively eroding rill on an intensively-farmed field in eastern Germany

search term: climate models Wikipedia Page

Numerical climate models (or climate system models) are mathematical models that can simulate the interactions of important drivers of climate. These drivers are the atmosphere, oceans, land surface and ice. Scientists use climate models to study the dynamics of the climate system and to make projections of future climate and of climate change. Climate models can also be qualitative (i.e. not numerical) models and contain narratives, largely descriptive, of possible futures.[1]

Climate models apply knowledge in various sciences to process extensive sets of input climate data, executing differential equations among grid elements in a three-dimensional model of Earth's climate system. The models produce simulated climates having an array of climatic and weather elements, such as heatwaves and storms. Each element may be described by several attributes, including intensity, frequency, and impacts. Climate models support adaptation to projected climate change, and enable extreme event attribution to explain specific weather events.

search term: irrigated agriculture Wikipedia Page

Irrigation is the practice of applying controlled amounts of water to land to help grow crops, landscape plants, and lawns. Irrigation has been a key aspect of agriculture for over 5,000 years and has been developed by many cultures around the world. Irrigation helps to grow crops, maintain landscapes, and revegetate disturbed soils in dry areas and during times of below-average rainfall. In addition to these uses, irrigation is also employed to protect crops from frost,[1] suppress weed growth in grain fields, and prevent soil consolidation. It is also used to cool livestock, reduce dust, dispose of sewage, and support mining operations. Drainage, which involves the removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given location, is often studied in conjunction with irrigation.

Irrigation of agricultural fields in Andalusia, Spain. Irrigation canal on the left.

search term: knowledge gap Wikipedia Page

The knowledge gap hypothesis is a mass communication theory created by Philip J. Tichenor, George A. Donohue, and Clarice. N Olien in 1970.[1] The theory is based on how a member of society processes information from mass media differently based on education level and socioeconomic status (SES). Since there is already a pre-existing gap in knowledge between groups in a population, mass media amplifies this gap to another level. The Knowledge Gap Hypothesis overviews and covers theoretical concepts that the hypothesis builds upon, historical background, operationalization and the means by which the hypothesis is measured, narrative review, meta-analytic support that draws data from multiple studies, new communication technologies that have affected the hypothesis, as well as the idea of Digital Divide, and the existing critiques and scholarly debates surrounding the hypothesis.

search term: cultural identity Wikipedia Page

Cultural identity is a part of a person's identity, or their self-conception and self-perception, and is related to nationality, ethnicity, religion, social class, generation, locality, gender, or any kind of social group that has its own distinct culture. In this way, cultural identity is both characteristic of the individual but also of the culturally identical group of members sharing the same cultural identity or upbringing. Cultural identity is an unfixed process that is continually evolving within the discourses of social, cultural, and historical experiences. Some people undergo more cultural identity changes as opposed to others, those who change less often have a clear cultural identity. This means that they have a dynamic yet stable integration of their culture.[1]

Cultural identity can be expressed through certain styles of clothing or other aesthetic markers

search term: adaptation responses Wikipedia Page

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search term: Hurricane Harvey Wikipedia Page

Hurricane Harvey was a powerful and devastating tropical cyclone that made landfall in Texas and Louisiana in August 2017, causing catastrophic flooding and more than 100 deaths. It is tied with 2005's Hurricane Katrina as the costliest tropical cyclone on record,[nb 1] inflicting $125 billion (2017 USD) in damage, primarily from catastrophic rainfall-triggered flooding in Greater Houston and Southeast Texas;[1][2] this made the storm the costliest natural disaster recorded in Texas at the time.[3] It was the first major hurricane[nb 2] to make landfall in the United States since Wilma in 2005, ending a record 12-year span in which no hurricanes made landfall at the intensity of a major hurricane throughout the country.[4] In a four-day period, many areas received more than 40 inches (1,000 mm) of rain as the system slowly meandered over eastern Texas and adjacent waters, causing unprecedented flooding. With peak accumulations of 60.58 in (1,539 mm) in Nederland, Texas, Harvey was the wettest tropical cyclone on record in the United States. The resulting floods inundated hundreds of thousands of homes, which displaced more than 30,000 people and prompted more than 17,000 rescues.

search term: hydropower Wikipedia Page

Hydropower (from Ancient Greek ὑδρο-, "water"), also known as water power or water energy, is the use of falling or fast-running water to produce electricity or to power machines. This is achieved by converting the gravitational potential or kinetic energy of a water source to produce power.[1] Hydropower is a method of sustainable energy production. Hydropower is now used principally for hydroelectric power generation, and is also applied as one half of an energy storage system known as pumped-storage hydroelectricity.

The Three Gorges Dam in China; the hydroelectric dam is the world's largest power station by installed capacity.

search term: agricultural sector Wikipedia Page

In economics, the primary sector is the economic sector which comprises industry involved in the extraction and production of raw materials, such as farming, logging, fishing, forestry and mining.[1][2][3] The primary sector tends to make up a larger portion of the economy in developing countries than it does in developed countries. For example, in 2018, agriculture, forestry, and fishing comprised more than 15% of GDP in sub-Saharan Africa[4] but less than 1% of GDP in North America.[5]

search term: water governance Wikipedia Page

Environmental governance are the processes of decision-making involved in the control and management of the environment and natural resources. These processes includes government, business and civil society. Environmental governance may also refer to a concept in political ecology which promotes environmental policy that advocates for sustainable human activity (i.e. that governance should be based upon environmental principles).

search term: water Wikipedia Page

Water is an inorganic compound with the chemical formula
H2O. It is a transparent, tasteless, odorless,[c] and nearly colorless chemical substance. It is the main constituent of Earth's hydrosphere and the fluids of all known living organisms in which it acts as a solvent. Water, being a polar molecule, undergoes strong intermolecular hydrogen bonding which is a large contributor to its physical and chemical properties.[20] It is vital for all known forms of life, despite not providing food energy or being an organic micronutrient. Due to its presence in all organisms, its chemical stability, its worldwide abundance, and its strong polarity relative to its small molecular size, water is often referred to as the "universal solvent".[21]

search term: rainfall variability Wikipedia Page

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search term: rainwater harvesting Wikipedia Page

Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is the collection and storage of rain water, rather than allowing it to run off. Rainwater is collected from a roof-like surface and redirected to a tank, cistern, deep pit (well, shaft, or borehole), aquifer, or a reservoir with percolation, so that it seeps down and restores the ground water. Rainwater harvesting differs from stormwater harvesting as the runoff is typically collected from roofs and other area surfaces for storage and subsequent reuse.[2]: 10 Its uses include watering gardens, livestock,[3] irrigation, domestic use with proper treatment, and domestic heating. The harvested water however,cannot be used for long-term storage or groundwater recharge as unfiltered rainwater may contain acid that produce harmful compounds. The shelf life for stored rainwater generally is 5-7 days.[4]

Configuration of domestic rainwater harvesting system in Uganda. Rain that falls on the roof of the building is transferred through the guttering to the storage tank.[1]

search term: groundwater recharge Wikipedia Page

Groundwater recharge or deep drainage or deep percolation is a hydrologic process, where water moves downward from surface water to groundwater. Recharge is the primary method through which water enters an aquifer. This process usually occurs in the vadose zone below plant roots and is often expressed as a flux to the water table surface. Groundwater recharge also encompasses water moving away from the water table farther into the saturated zone.[1] Recharge occurs both naturally (through the water cycle) and through anthropogenic processes (i.e., "artificial groundwater recharge"), where rainwater and/or reclaimed water is routed to the subsurface.

Water balance

search term: water availability Wikipedia Page

Water availability may refer to:

search term: flood protection Wikipedia Page

Flood management or flood control are methods used to reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of flood waters. Flooding can be caused by a mix of both natural processes, such as extreme weather upstream, and human changes to waterbodies and runoff. Flood management methods can be either of the structural type (i.e. flood control) and of the non-structural type. Structural methods hold back floodwaters physically, while non-structural methods do not. Building hard infrastructure to prevent flooding, such as flood walls, is effective at managing flooding. However, it is best practice within landscape engineering to rely more on soft infrastructure and natural systems, such as marshes and flood plains, for handling the increase in water.

A weir was built on the Humber River (Ontario) to prevent a recurrence of a catastrophic flood.

search term: coping strategies Wikipedia Page

Coping refers to conscious or unconscious strategies used to reduce and manage unpleasant emotions. Coping strategies can be cognitions or behaviors and can be individual or social. To cope is to deal with struggles and difficulties in life.[1] It is a way for people to maintain their mental and emotional well-being.[2] Everybody has ways of handling difficult events that occur in life, and that is what it means to cope. Coping can be healthy and productive, or unhealthy and destructive. It is recommended that an individual cope in ways that will be beneficial and healthy. "Managing your stress well can help you feel better physically and psychologically and it can impact your ability to perform your best."[3]

search term: crop diversification Wikipedia Page

In the agricultural context, diversification can be regarded as the re-allocation of some of a farm's productive resources, such as land, capital, farm equipment and labour to other products and, particularly in richer countries, to non-farming activities such as restaurants and shops. Factors leading to decisions to diversify are many, but include: reducing risk, responding to changing consumer demands or changing government policy, responding to external shocks and, more recently, as a consequence of climate change.

search term: sanitation Wikipedia Page

Sanitation refers to public health conditions related to clean drinking water and treatment and disposal of human excreta and sewage.[1] Preventing human contact with feces is part of sanitation, as is hand washing with soap. Sanitation systems aim to protect human health by providing a clean environment that will stop the transmission of disease, especially through the fecal–oral route.[2] For example, diarrhea, a main cause of malnutrition and stunted growth in children, can be reduced through adequate sanitation.[3] There are many other diseases which are easily transmitted in communities that have low levels of sanitation, such as ascariasis (a type of intestinal worm infection or helminthiasis), cholera, hepatitis, polio, schistosomiasis, and trachoma, to name just a few.

The sanitation system: collection, transport, treatment, disposal or reuse.

search term: water quality Wikipedia Page

Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, and biological characteristics of water based on the standards of its usage.[1][2] It is most frequently used by reference to a set of standards against which compliance, generally achieved through treatment of the water, can be assessed. The most common standards used to monitor and assess water quality convey the health of ecosystems, safety of human contact, extent of water pollution and condition of drinking water. Water quality has a significant impact on water supply and often determines supply options.[3]

A rosette sampler is used for collecting water samples in deep water, such as the Great Lakes or oceans, for water quality testing.

search term: water stress Wikipedia Page

Water scarcity (closely related to water stress or water crisis) is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two types of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.[2]: 560 Physical water scarcity is where there is not enough water to meet all demands. This includes water needed for ecosystems to function. Regions with a desert climate often face physical water scarcity.[3] Central Asia, West Asia, and North Africa are examples of arid areas. Economic water scarcity results from a lack of investment in infrastructure or technology to draw water from rivers, aquifers, or other water sources. It also results from weak human capacity to meet water demand.[2]: 560 Many people in sub-Saharan Africa are living with economic water scarcity.[4]: 11

Map of global water stress (a symptom of water scarcity) in 2019. Water stress is the ratio of water use relative to water availability and is therefore a demand-driven scarcity.[1]

search term: land use changes Wikipedia Page

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search term: rainfall patterns Wikipedia Page

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search term: societal impacts Wikipedia Page

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search term: tropics Wikipedia Page

The tropics are the regions of Earth surrounding the equator, where the sun may shine directly overhead. This contrasts with the temperate or polar regions of Earth, where the Sun can never be directly overhead. Because of Earth's axial tilt, the width of the tropics (in latitude) is twice the tilt. The tropics are also referred to as the tropical zone and the torrid zone (see geographical zone).

World map with the intertropical zone highlighted in crimson

search term: water resources Wikipedia Page

Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful for humans, for example as a source of drinking water supply or irrigation water. These resources can be either freshwater from natural sources, or water produced artificially from other sources, such as from reclaimed water (wastewater) or desalinated water (seawater). 97% of the water on Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly over two-thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps.[2] The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air.[3] Natural sources of fresh water include frozen water, groundwater, surface water, and under river flow. People use water resources for agricultural, household, and industrial activities.

Lake Chungará and Parinacota volcano in northern Chile

search term: precipitation extremes Wikipedia Page

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search term: local communities Wikipedia Page

A local community has been defined as a group of interacting people living in a common location. The word is often used to refer to a group that is organized around common values and is attributed with social cohesion within a shared geographical location, generally in social units larger than a household. The word can also refer to the national community or global community.

search term: ts Wikipedia Page

TS or Ts may refer to:

search term: polycentric governance Wikipedia Page

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search term: anthropogenic forcing Wikipedia Page

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search term: glaciers Wikipedia Page

A glacier (
US: /ˈɡleɪʃər/; UK: /ˈɡlæsiə/ or /ˈɡleɪsiə/) is a persistent body of dense ice, a form of rock,[2] that is constantly moving downhill under its own weight. A glacier forms where the accumulation of snow exceeds its ablation over many years, often centuries. It acquires distinguishing features, such as crevasses and seracs, as it slowly flows and deforms under stresses induced by its weight. As it moves, it abrades rock and debris from its substrate to create landforms such as cirques, moraines, or fjords. Although a glacier may flow into a body of water, it forms only on land[3][4][5] and is distinct from the much thinner sea ice and lake ice that form on the surface of bodies of water.

Glacier of the Geikie Plateau in Greenland

search term: uncertainties Wikipedia Page

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search term: capacity building Wikipedia Page

Capacity building (or capacity development, capacity strengthening) is the improvement in an individual's or organization's facility (or capability) "to produce, perform or deploy".[1] The terms capacity building and capacity development have often been used interchangeably, although a publication by OECD-DAC stated in 2006 that capacity development was the preferable term.[2] Since the 1950s, international organizations, governments, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and communities use the concept of capacity building as part of "social and economic development" in national and subnational plans. The United Nations Development Programme defines itself by "capacity development" in the sense of "'how UNDP works" to fulfill its mission.[3][4] The UN system applies it in almost every sector, including several of the Sustainable Development Goals to be achieved by 2030. For example, the Sustainable Development Goal 17 advocates for enhanced international support for capacity building in developing countries to support national plans to implement the 2030 Agenda.[5]

Launching of the "Strengthening Capacity and Institutional Reform for Green Growth and Sustainable Development in Vietnam" Project in 2015

search term: Finland Wikipedia Page

– in Europe (green & dark grey)
– in the European Union (green) – [Legend]

search term: water scarcity Wikipedia Page

Water scarcity (closely related to water stress or water crisis) is the lack of fresh water resources to meet the standard water demand. There are two types of water scarcity. One is physical. The other is economic water scarcity.[2]: 560 Physical water scarcity is where there is not enough water to meet all demands. This includes water needed for ecosystems to function. Regions with a desert climate often face physical water scarcity.[3] Central Asia, West Asia, and North Africa are examples of arid areas. Economic water scarcity results from a lack of investment in infrastructure or technology to draw water from rivers, aquifers, or other water sources. It also results from weak human capacity to meet water demand.[2]: 560 Many people in sub-Saharan Africa are living with economic water scarcity.[4]: 11

Map of global water stress (a symptom of water scarcity) in 2019. Water stress is the ratio of water use relative to water availability and is therefore a demand-driven scarcity.[1]

search term: ecological knowledge Wikipedia Page

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search term: river floods Wikipedia Page

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search term: Smallholder farmers Wikipedia Page

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search term: river flooding Wikipedia Page

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search term: European Alps Wikipedia Page

The Alps (/ælps/)[a] are some of the highest and most extensive mountain ranges in Europe,[b][2] stretching approximately 1,200 km (750 mi) across eight Alpine countries (from west to east): Monaco, France, Switzerland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Germany, Austria and Slovenia.[c][4]

search term: permafrost Wikipedia Page

Permafrost (from perma- 'permanent' and frost) is soil or underwater sediment which continuously remains below 0 °C (32 °F) for two years or more; the oldest permafrost has been continuously frozen for around 700,000 years.[1] Whilst the shallowest permafrost has a vertical extent of below a meter (3 ft), the deepest is greater than 1,500 m (4,900 ft).[2] Similarly, the area of individual permafrost zones may be limited to narrow mountain summits or extend across vast Arctic regions.[3] The ground beneath glaciers and ice sheets is not usually defined as permafrost, so on land, permafrost is generally located beneath a so-called active layer of soil which freezes and thaws depending on the season.[4]

search term: wild foods Wikipedia Page

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search term: food safety Wikipedia Page

Food safety (or food hygiene) is used as a scientific method/discipline describing handling, preparation, and storage of food in ways that prevent foodborne illness. The occurrence of two or more cases of a similar illness resulting from the ingestion of a common food is known as a food-borne disease outbreak.[1] Food safety includes a number of routines that should be followed to avoid potential health hazards. In this way, food safety often overlaps with food defense to prevent harm to consumers. The tracks within this line of thought are safety between industry and the market and then between the market and the consumer. In considering industry-to-market practices, food safety[2] considerations include the origins of food including the practices relating to food labeling, food hygiene, food additives and pesticide residues, as well as policies on biotechnology and food and guidelines for the management of governmental import and export inspection and certification systems for foods. In considering market-to-consumer practices, the usual thought is that food ought to be safe in the market and the concern is safe delivery and preparation of the food for the consumer. Food safety, nutrition and food security are closely related. Unhealthy food creates a cycle of disease and malnutrition that affects infants and adults as well.[3]

FDA lab tests seafood for microorganisms.

search term: food system Wikipedia Page

The term food system describes the interconnected systems and processes that influence nutrition, food, health, community development, and agriculture. A food system includes all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population: growing, harvesting, processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consumption, distribution, and disposal of food and food-related items. It also includes the inputs needed and outputs generated at each of these steps.

Quantified hidden costs of agrifood systems by cost category (left) and subcategory (right), 2020

search term: agroecology Wikipedia Page

Agroecology is an academic discipline that studies ecological processes applied to agricultural production systems. Bringing ecological principles to bear can suggest new management approaches in agroecosystems. The term can refer to a science, a movement, or an agricultural practice.[1] Agroecologists study a variety of agroecosystems. The field of agroecology is not associated with any one particular method of farming, whether it be organic, regenerative, integrated, or industrial, intensive or extensive, although some use the name specifically for alternative agriculture.

Overlooking a large shade cacao plantation where the Ixcacao Mayan Belizean Chocolate company grows and produces chocolate using Mayan techniques.

search term: soybean Wikipedia Page

The soybean, soy bean, or soya bean (Glycine max)[3] is a species of legume native to East Asia, widely grown for its edible bean. Soy is a staple crop, the world's most grown legume, and an important animal feed.[4]

Fruits/pods

search term: cropping systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: agricultural intensification Wikipedia Page

Intensive agriculture, also known as intensive farming (as opposed to extensive farming), conventional, or industrial agriculture, is a type of agriculture, both of crop plants and of animals, with higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural land area. It is characterized by a low fallow ratio, higher use of inputs such as capital, labour, agrochemicals and water, and higher crop yields per unit land area.[1]

Intensive farming of wheat in Lund, Sweden

search term: Agric Syst Wikipedia Page

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search term: agroforestry systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: vegetables Wikipedia Page

Vegetables are edible parts of plants that are consumed by humans or other animals as food. This original meaning is still commonly used, and is applied to plants collectively to refer to all edible plant matter, including flowers, fruits, stems, leaves, roots, and seeds. An alternative definition is applied somewhat arbitrarily, often by culinary and cultural tradition; it may include savoury fruits such as tomatoes and squash, flowers such as broccoli, and seeds such as pulses, but exclude foods derived from some plants that are fruits, flowers, nuts, and cereal grains.

Vegetables in a market in the Philippines

search term: medicinal plants Wikipedia Page

Medicinal plants, also called medicinal herbs, have been discovered and used in traditional medicine practices since prehistoric times. Plants synthesize hundreds of chemical compounds for various functions, including defense and protection against insects, fungi, diseases, against parasites[2] and herbivorous mammals.[3]

The bark of willow trees contains salicylic acid, the active metabolite of aspirin, and has been used for millennia to relieve pain and reduce fever.[1]

search term: Food Secur Wikipedia Page

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search term: major crops Wikipedia Page

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search term: sheep Wikipedia Page

Ovis guineensis Linnaeus, 1758
Ovis strepsiceros Linnaeus, 1758

Sheep in Turkmenistan

search term: diversification Wikipedia Page

Diversification may refer to:

search term: Viet Nam Wikipedia Page

Vietnam,[e][f] officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV),[g][h] is a country at the eastern edge of Mainland Southeast Asia. With an area of about 331,000 square kilometres (128,000 sq mi) and a population of over 100 million, it is the world's 15th-most populous country. One of two communist states in Southeast Asia,[i] Vietnam is bordered by China to the north, Laos and Cambodia to the west, the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest, and the South China Sea to the east; it also shares maritime borders with Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia to the south and southwest, the Philippines to the east, and China to the northeast. Its capital is Hanoi, while its largest city is Ho Chi Minh City.

Người Việt 𠊛越 written in chữ Nôm

search term: legumes Wikipedia Page

Legumes are plants in the pea family Fabaceae (or Leguminosae), or the fruit or seeds of such plants. When used as a dry grain for human consumption, the seeds are also called pulses. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consumption, but also as livestock forage and silage, and as soil-enhancing green manure. Legumes produce a botanically unique type of fruit – a simple dry fruit that develops from a simple carpel and usually dehisces (opens along a seam) on two sides.

A selection of dried pulses and fresh legumes

search term: dietary diversity Wikipedia Page

Dietary diversity is the variety or the number of different food groups people eat over the time given.[1] Many researchers might use the word ' dietary diversity' and ‘dietary variety’ interchangeably.[2] However, some researchers differentiate the definition between 2 words that dietary diversity has defined as the difference of food groups while dietary variety has focused on the actual food items people intake.[3]

search term: Food Systems Wikipedia Page

The term food system describes the interconnected systems and processes that influence nutrition, food, health, community development, and agriculture. A food system includes all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population: growing, harvesting, processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consumption, distribution, and disposal of food and food-related items. It also includes the inputs needed and outputs generated at each of these steps.

Quantified hidden costs of agrifood systems by cost category (left) and subcategory (right), 2020

search term: nutritional quality Wikipedia Page

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search term: cereals Wikipedia Page

A cereal is a grass cultivated for its edible grain. Cereals are the world's largest crops, and are therefore staple foods. They include rice, wheat, rye, oats, barley, millet, and maize (corn). Edible grains from other plant families, such as amaranth, buckwheat and quinoa, are pseudocereals. Most cereals are annuals, producing one crop from each planting, though rice is sometimes grown as a perennial. Winter varieties are hardy enough to be planted in the autumn, becoming dormant in the winter, and harvested in spring or early summer; spring varieties are planted in spring and harvested in late summer. The term cereal is derived from the name of the Roman goddess of grain crops and fertility, Ceres.

Harvesting a cereal with a combine harvester accompanied by a tractor and trailer.

search term: pests Wikipedia Page

Pest or The Pest may refer to:

search term: international trade Wikipedia Page

International trade is the exchange of capital, goods, and services across international borders or territories[1] because there is a need or want of goods or services.[2]

search term: goats Wikipedia Page

Capra aegagrus hircus Linnaeus, 1758
Capra depressa Linnaeus, 1758
Capra mambrica Linnaeus, 1758
Capra reversa Linnaeus, 1758

search term: global food security Wikipedia Page

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search term: agricultural systems Wikipedia Page

Agriculture is the practice of cultivating the soil, planting, raising, and harvesting both food and non-food crops, as well as livestock production. Broader definitions also include forestry and aquaculture. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated plants and animals created food surpluses that enabled people to live in the cities. While humans started gathering grains at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers only began planting them around 11,500 years ago. Sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle were domesticated around 10,000 years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. In the 20th century, industrial agriculture based on large-scale monocultures came to dominate agricultural output.

Modern agriculture: a center pivot irrigation system on a field

search term: forests Wikipedia Page

A forest is an ecosystem characterized by a dense community of trees.[2] Hundreds of definitions of forest are used throughout the world, incorporating factors such as tree density, tree height, land use, legal standing, and ecological function.[3][4][5] The United Nations' Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) defines a forest as, "Land spanning more than 0.5 hectares with trees higher than 5 meters and a canopy cover of more than 10 percent, or trees able to reach these thresholds in situ. It does not include land that is predominantly under agricultural or urban use."[6] Using this definition, Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 found that forests covered 4.06 billion hectares (10.0 billion acres; 40.6 million square kilometres; 15.7 million square miles), or approximately 31 percent of the world's land area in 2020.[7]

The Amazon rainforest alongside the Solimões River, a tropical rainforest. These forests are the most biodiverse and productive ecosystems in the world.

search term: mixed farming systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: elevated CO2 Wikipedia Page

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search term: breeding Wikipedia Page

Breeding is sexual reproduction that produces offspring, usually animals or plants. It can only occur between a male and a female animal or plant.

search term: mixed systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: Peasant Stud Wikipedia Page

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search term: food quality Wikipedia Page

Food quality is a concept often based on the organoleptic characteristics (e.g., taste, aroma, appearance) and nutritional value of food. Producers reducing potential pathogens and other hazards through food safety practices is another important factor in gauging standards. A food's origin, and even its branding, can play a role in how consumers perceive the quality of products. Consumer acceptability of foods is typically based upon flavor and texture, as well as its color and smell.[1]

search term: distribution Wikipedia Page

Distribution may refer to:

search term: weeds Wikipedia Page

A weed is an unwanted plant of any species.

search term: pollinators Wikipedia Page

A pollinator is an animal that moves pollen from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma of a flower.[1] This helps to bring about fertilization of the ovules in the flower by the male gametes from the pollen grains.

A syrphid fly (Eristalinus taeniops) pollinating a common hawkweed

search term: human nutrition Wikipedia Page

Human nutrition deals with the provision of essential nutrients in food that are necessary to support human life and good health.[1] Poor nutrition is a chronic problem often linked to poverty, food security, or a poor understanding of nutritional requirements.[2] Malnutrition and its consequences are large contributors to deaths, physical deformities, and disabilities worldwide.[3] Good nutrition is necessary for children to grow physically and mentally, and for normal human biological development.[2]

Foods high in magnesium (an example of a nutrient)

search term: crop species Wikipedia Page

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search term: AgMIP Wikipedia Page

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search term: yield losses Wikipedia Page

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search term: agricultural landscapes Wikipedia Page

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search term: Livestock Wikipedia Page

Livestock are the domesticated animals that are raised in an agricultural setting to provide labor and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The term is sometimes used to refer solely to animals which are raised for consumption, and sometimes used to refer solely to farmed ruminants, such as cattle, sheep, and goats.[1] Livestock production are mainly a source for farm work and human consumption.

Cows on a pasture in Austria

search term: profitability Wikipedia Page

Prescriptive and policy

Difference between how accountants and economists view a firm

search term: seafood Wikipedia Page

Seafood is any form of sea life regarded as food by humans, prominently including fish and shellfish. Shellfish include various species of molluscs (e.g., bivalve molluscs such as clams, oysters, and mussels, and cephalopods such as octopus and squid), crustaceans (e.g. shrimp, crabs, and lobster), and echinoderms (e.g. sea cucumbers and sea urchins). Historically, marine mammals such as cetaceans (whales and dolphins) as well as seals have been eaten as food, though that happens to a lesser extent in modern times. Edible sea plants such as some seaweeds and microalgae are widely eaten as sea vegetables around the world, especially in Asia.

Seafood includes any form of food taken from the sea.

search term: GM crops Wikipedia Page

Genetically modified crops (GM crops) are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified using genetic engineering methods. Plant genomes can be engineered by physical methods or by use of Agrobacterium for the delivery of sequences hosted in T-DNA binary vectors. In most cases, the aim is to introduce a new trait to the plant which does not occur naturally in the species. Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, environmental conditions, reduction of spoilage, resistance to chemical treatments (e.g. resistance to a herbicide), or improving the nutrient profile of the crop. Examples in non-food crops include genetically modified trees for silviculture, and production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels, and other industrially useful goods, as well as for bioremediation.[1]

Plants (Solanum chacoense) being transformed using agrobacterium

search term: UPA Wikipedia Page

Upa or UPA may refer to:

search term: LSLAs Wikipedia Page

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search term: circular economy Wikipedia Page

A circular economy (CE), also referred to as circularity,[1] is a model of resource production and consumption in any economy that involves sharing, leasing, reusing, repairing, refurbishing, and recycling existing materials and products for as long as possible.[2][3][4] The concept aims to tackle global challenges such as climate change, biodiversity loss, waste, and pollution by emphasizing the design-based implementation of the three base principles of the model. The main three principles required for the transformation to a circular economy are: designing out waste and pollution, keeping products and materials in use, and regenerating natural systems.[5] Circular economy is defined in contradistinction to the traditional linear economy.[6][7]

Contrast between the wasteful "take, make, dispose" approach of a linear economy, and that of a circular economy

search term: CGIAR Research Program Wikipedia Page

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search term: World Food Security Wikipedia Page

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search term: zoonoses Wikipedia Page

A zoonosis (/zoʊˈɒnəsɪs, ˌzoʊəˈnoʊsɪs/ ⓘ;[1] plural zoonoses) or zoonotic disease is an infectious disease of humans caused by a pathogen (an infectious agent, such as a virus, bacterium, parasite, fungi, or prion) that can jump from a non-human vertebrate to a human. When humans infect non-humans, it is called reverse zoonosis or anthroponosis.[2][1][3][4]

Possibilities for zoonotic disease transmissions

search term: aquatic systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: yield stability Wikipedia Page

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search term: crop management Wikipedia Page

Intensive crop farming is a modern industrialized form of crop farming. Intensive crop farming's methods include innovation in agricultural machinery, farming methods, genetic engineering technology, techniques for achieving economies of scale in production, the creation of new markets for consumption, patent protection of genetic information, and global trade. These methods are widespread in developed nations.

A corn heap at the harvest site, India

search term: livestock systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: agrobiodiversity Wikipedia Page

Agricultural biodiversity or agrobiodiversity is a subset of general biodiversity pertaining to agriculture. It can be defined as "the variety and variability of animals, plants and micro-organisms at the genetic, species and ecosystem levels that sustain the ecosystem structures, functions and processes in and around production systems, and that provide food and non-food agricultural products."[1] It is managed by farmers, pastoralists, fishers and forest dwellers, agrobiodiversity provides stability, adaptability and resilience and constitutes a key element of the livelihood strategies of rural communities throughout the world.[2] Agrobiodiversity is central to sustainable food systems and sustainable diets. The use of agricultural biodiversity can contribute to food security, nutrition security, and livelihood security, and it is critical for climate adaptation and climate mitigation.[3][4][5]

Unusual strains of maize are examples of crop diversity and can be used as the basis for breeding new varieties.

search term: credit Wikipedia Page

Credit (from Latin verb credit, meaning "one believes") is the trust which allows one party to provide money or resources to another party wherein the second party does not reimburse the first party immediately (thereby generating a debt), but promises either to repay or return those resources (or other materials of equal value) at a later date.[1] The resources provided by the first party can be either property, fulfillment of promises, or performances.[2] In other words, credit is a method of making reciprocity formal, legally enforceable, and extensible to a large group of unrelated people.

A credit card is a common form of credit. With a credit card, the credit card company, often a bank, grants a line of credit to the card holder. The card holder can make purchases from merchants, and borrow the money for these purchases from the credit card company.

search term: mycotoxins Wikipedia Page

A mycotoxin (from the Greek μύκης mykes, "fungus" and τοξικός toxikos, "poisonous")[1][2] is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by fungi[3][4] and is capable of causing disease and death in both humans and other animals.[5][6] The term 'mycotoxin' is usually reserved for the toxic chemical products produced by fungi that readily colonize crops.[7]

search term: CES Wikipedia Page

search term: aquatic ecosystems Wikipedia Page

An aquatic ecosystem is an ecosystem found in and around a body of water, in contrast to land-based terrestrial ecosystems. Aquatic ecosystems contain communities of organisms—aquatic life—that are dependent on each other and on their environment. The two main types of aquatic ecosystems are marine ecosystems and freshwater ecosystems.[1] Freshwater ecosystems may be lentic (slow moving water, including pools, ponds, and lakes); lotic (faster moving water, for example streams and rivers); and wetlands (areas where the soil is saturated or inundated for at least part of the time).[2]

Coral reefs form complex marine ecosystems with tremendous biodiversity.

search term: biomass production Wikipedia Page

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search term: caribou Wikipedia Page

See text, traditionally 1, but possibly up to 6

search term: food supply Wikipedia Page

Food security is the state of having reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, healthy food. The availability of food for people of any class, gender, ethnicity, or religion is another element of food protection. Similarly, household food security is considered to exist when all the members of a family have consistent access to enough food for an active, healthy life.[1] Food-secure individuals do not live in hunger or fear of starvation.[2] Food security includes resilience to future disruptions of food supply. Such a disruption could occur due to various risk factors such as droughts and floods, shipping disruptions, fuel shortages, economic instability, and wars.[3] Food insecurity is the opposite of food security: a state where there is only limited or uncertain availability of suitable food.

Women selling produce at a market in Lilongwe, Malawi

search term: multiple ecosystem services Wikipedia Page

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search term: aquaponics Wikipedia Page

Aquaponics is a food production system that couples aquaculture (raising aquatic animals such as fish, crayfish, snails or prawns in tanks) with hydroponics (cultivating plants in water) whereby the nutrient-rich aquaculture water is fed to hydroponically grown plants.[1]

Woodcut from the 13th-century Chinese agricultural manual Wang Zhen's Book on Farming (王禎農書) showing rice grown in a floating raft planter system (架田, lit "framed paddy") in a pond

search term: food waste Wikipedia Page

The causes of food going uneaten are numerous and occur throughout the food system, during production, processing, distribution, retail and food service sales, and consumption. Overall, about one-third of the world's food is thrown away.[2][3] A similar amount is lost on top of that by feeding human-edible food to farm animals (the net effect wastes an estimated 1144 kcal/person/day). A 2021 meta-analysis, that did not include food lost during production, by the United Nations Environment Programme found that food waste was a challenge in all countries at all levels of economic development.[4] The analysis estimated that global food waste was 931 million tonnes of food waste (about 121 kg per capita) across three sectors: 61 percent from households, 26 percent from food service and 13 percent from retail.[4]

Fruit and vegetables in a dumpster, discarded uneaten

search term: political instability Wikipedia Page

Political decay is a political theory, originally described in 1965 by Samuel P. Huntington,[1][2] which describes how chaos and disorder can arise from social modernization increasing more rapidly than political and institutional modernization. Huntington provides different definitions for political development and describes the forms of political decay according to the various definitions. Huntington focuses primarily on political development as modernization and institutionalization. However, he points to the different definitions of political development as being arbitrary ways to understanding the rise of political systems and the relationship between the political systems of different nations.

search term: regional food systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: political ecology Wikipedia Page

Political ecology is the study of the relationships between political, economic and social factors with environmental issues and changes. Political ecology differs from apolitical ecological studies by politicizing environmental issues and phenomena.

Political ecology studies the complex interaction between economics, politics, technology, social tradition and the biological environment. These terraced rice fields in Yunnan, China, evidence how the environment is shaped by and shapes economy and society.

search term: REDD plus Wikipedia Page

REDD+ is a voluntary climate mitigation framework developed by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).[1] It aims to encourage developing countries to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and deforestation, enhance forest's removal of greenhouse gases, promote sustainable forest management, and financially incentivise these efforts.[2] The acronym refers to "reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation in developing countries."[3] The "+" refers the framework's forest conservation activities.[2]

search term: CCAFS Wikipedia Page

Cape Canaveral Space Force Station (CCSFS) is an installation of the United States Space Force's Space Launch Delta 45, located on Cape Canaveral in Brevard County, Florida.

search term: pigs Wikipedia Page

The pig (Sus domesticus), also called swine (pl.: swine) or hog, is an omnivorous, domesticated, even-toed, hoofed mammal. It is named the domestic pig when distinguishing it from other members of the genus Sus. Some authorities consider it a subspecies of Sus scrofa (the wild boar or Eurasian boar); other authorities consider it a distinct species. Pigs were domesticated in the Neolithic, both in China and in the Near East (around the Tigris Basin). When domesticated pigs arrived in Europe, they extensively interbred with wild boar but retained their domesticated features.

The initial emergence of wild pigs, followed by the genetic divergence between boars and pigs and the domestication of pigs [20]

search term: extreme climate events Wikipedia Page

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search term: toxigenic fungi Wikipedia Page

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search term: HABs Wikipedia Page

The Montreal Canadiens[note 4] (French: Canadiens de Montréal, lit. 'Canadians of Montreal'), officially Club de hockey Canadien (lit. 'Canadian hockey club')[9] and colloquially known as the Habs,[note 5] are a professional ice hockey team based in Montreal. The Canadiens compete in the National Hockey League (NHL) as a member of the Atlantic Division in the Eastern Conference. Since 1996, the team has played its home games at the Bell Centre, originally known as the Molson Centre.[10] The Canadiens previously played at the Montreal Forum, which housed the team for seven decades and all but their first two Stanley Cup championships.[note 6]

search term: pest control Wikipedia Page

Pest control is the regulation or management of a species defined as a pest; such as any animal, plant or fungus that impacts adversely on human activities or environment.[1] The human response depends on the importance of the damage done and will range from tolerance, through deterrence and management, to attempts to completely eradicate the pest. Pest control measures may be performed as part of an integrated pest management strategy.

An agricultural aircraft applies low-insecticide bait against western corn rootworm.

search term: bioeconomy Wikipedia Page

Biobased economy, bioeconomy or biotechonomy is an economic activity involving the use of biotechnology and biomass in the production of goods, services, or energy. The terms are widely used by regional development agencies, national and international organizations, and biotechnology companies. They are closely linked to the evolution of the biotechnology industry and the capacity to study, understand, and manipulate genetic material that has been possible due to scientific research and technological development. This includes the application of scientific and technological developments to agriculture, health, chemical, and energy industries.[1][2]

A video by New Harvest and Xprize explaining the development of cultured meat and a "post-animal bio-economy" driven by lab-grown protein (meat, eggs, milk)

search term: adaptation option Wikipedia Page

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search term: global food system Wikipedia Page

The term food system describes the interconnected systems and processes that influence nutrition, food, health, community development, and agriculture. A food system includes all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population: growing, harvesting, processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consumption, distribution, and disposal of food and food-related items. It also includes the inputs needed and outputs generated at each of these steps.

Quantified hidden costs of agrifood systems by cost category (left) and subcategory (right), 2020

search term: Adaptation options Wikipedia Page

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search term: quality Wikipedia Page

Quality may refer to:

search term: farming systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: livestock diseases Wikipedia Page

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search term: habitat suitability Wikipedia Page

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search term: yield Wikipedia Page

search term: elevated temperature Wikipedia Page

Fever or pyrexia in humans is a symptom of an anti-infection defense mechanism that appears with body temperature exceeding the normal range caused by an increase in the body's temperature set point in the hypothalamus.[5][6][7][12] There is no single agreed-upon upper limit for normal temperature: sources use values ranging between 37.2 and 38.3 °C (99.0 and 100.9 °F) in humans.[1][7][8]

search term: CO2 concentration Wikipedia Page

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search term: yield variability Wikipedia Page

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search term: crop models Wikipedia Page

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search term: global food production Wikipedia Page

The page "Global food production" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: residual damage Wikipedia Page

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search term: genomics Wikipedia Page

Genomics is an interdisciplinary field of molecular biology focusing on the structure, function, evolution, mapping, and editing of genomes. A genome is an organism's complete set of DNA, including all of its genes as well as its hierarchical, three-dimensional structural configuration.[1][2][3][4][excessive citations] In contrast to genetics, which refers to the study of individual genes and their roles in inheritance, genomics aims at the collective characterization and quantification of all of an organism's genes, their interrelations and influence on the organism.[5] Genes may direct the production of proteins with the assistance of enzymes and messenger molecules. In turn, proteins make up body structures such as organs and tissues as well as control chemical reactions and carry signals between cells. Genomics also involves the sequencing and analysis of genomes through uses of high throughput DNA sequencing and bioinformatics to assemble and analyze the function and structure of entire genomes.[6][7] Advances in genomics have triggered a revolution in discovery-based research and systems biology to facilitate understanding of even the most complex biological systems such as the brain.[8]

The number of genome projects has increased as technological improvements continue to lower the cost of sequencing. (A) Exponential growth of genome sequence databases since 1995. (B) The cost in US Dollars (USD) to sequence one million bases. (C) The cost in USD to sequence a 3,000 Mb (human-sized) genome on a log-transformed scale.

search term: protein Wikipedia Page

Proteins are large biomolecules and macromolecules that comprise one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Proteins perform a vast array of functions within organisms, including catalysing metabolic reactions, DNA replication, responding to stimuli, providing structure to cells and organisms, and transporting molecules from one location to another. Proteins differ from one another primarily in their sequence of amino acids, which is dictated by the nucleotide sequence of their genes, and which usually results in protein folding into a specific 3D structure that determines its activity.

A representation of the 3D structure of the protein myoglobin showing turquoise α-helices. This protein was the first to have its structure solved by X-ray crystallography. Toward the right-center among the coils, a prosthetic group called a heme group (shown in gray) with a bound oxygen molecule (red).

search term: production Wikipedia Page

Production may refer to:

search term: forest ecosystems Wikipedia Page

Forest Ecosystems is a bimonthly peer-reviewed open access scientific journal covering research related to the structure and dynamics of "natural" and "domesticated" forest ecosystems. Previously published by Springer Nature, as of 2022 it is published by Elsevier on behalf of KeAi Communications.[1][2]

search term: forest management Wikipedia Page

Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture, forest protection, and regulation. This includes management for timber, aesthetics, recreation, urban values, water, wildlife, inland and nearshore fisheries, wood products, plant genetic resources, and other forest resource values.[1] Management objectives can be for conservation, utilisation, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and replanting of different species, building and maintenance of roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire.

Sustainable forest management balances local socioeconomic, cultural, and ecological needs and constraints.

search term: household food security Wikipedia Page

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search term: subtropical regions Wikipedia Page

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search term: hydroponics Wikipedia Page

Hydroponics is a type of horticulture and a subset of hydroculture which involves growing plants, usually crops or medicinal plants, without soil, by using water-based mineral nutrient solutions in an artificial environment. Terrestrial or aquatic plants may grow freely with their roots exposed to the nutritious liquid or the roots may be mechanically supported by an inert medium such as perlite, gravel, or other substrates.[1]

NASA researcher Ray Wheeler checking hydroponic onions (center), Bibb lettuces (left), and radishes (right)

search term: livestock farmers Wikipedia Page

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search term: conventional agriculture Wikipedia Page

Intensive agriculture, also known as intensive farming (as opposed to extensive farming), conventional, or industrial agriculture, is a type of agriculture, both of crop plants and of animals, with higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural land area. It is characterized by a low fallow ratio, higher use of inputs such as capital, labour, agrochemicals and water, and higher crop yields per unit land area.[1]

Intensive farming of wheat in Lund, Sweden

search term: aflatoxin Wikipedia Page

Aflatoxins are various poisonous carcinogens and mutagens that are produced by certain molds, especially Aspergillus species such as Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus. According to the USDA, "They are probably the best known and most intensively researched mycotoxins in the world."[1] The fungi grow in soil, decaying vegetation and various staple foodstuffs and commodities such as hay, maize (corn), peanuts, coffee, wheat, millet, sorghum, cassava, rice, chili peppers, cottonseed, tree nuts, sesame seeds, sunflower seeds, and various cereal grains and oil seeds. In short, the relevant fungi grow on almost any crop or food. When such contaminated food is processed or consumed, the aflatoxins enter the general food supply. They have been found in both pet and human foods, as well as in feedstocks for agricultural animals. Animals fed contaminated food can pass aflatoxin transformation products into milk, milk products, and meat.[2] For example, contaminated poultry feed is the suspected source of aflatoxin-contaminated chicken meat and eggs in Pakistan.[3]

Chemical structure of aflatoxin B1

search term: nutrition security Wikipedia Page

Food security is the state of having reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, healthy food. The availability of food for people of any class, gender, ethnicity, or religion is another element of food protection. Similarly, household food security is considered to exist when all the members of a family have consistent access to enough food for an active, healthy life.[1] Food-secure individuals do not live in hunger or fear of starvation.[2] Food security includes resilience to future disruptions of food supply. Such a disruption could occur due to various risk factors such as droughts and floods, shipping disruptions, fuel shortages, economic instability, and wars.[3] Food insecurity is the opposite of food security: a state where there is only limited or uncertain availability of suitable food.

Women selling produce at a market in Lilongwe, Malawi

search term: crop diversity Wikipedia Page

Crop diversity or crop biodiversity is the variety and variability of crops, plants used in agriculture, including their genetic and phenotypic characteristics. It is a subset of a specific element of agricultural biodiversity. Over the past 50 years, there has been a major decline in two components of crop diversity; genetic diversity within each crop and the number of species commonly grown.

Geographic hotspots of distributions of crop wild relatives not represented in genebanks

search term: power dynamics Wikipedia Page

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search term: healthy diets Wikipedia Page

A healthy diet is a diet that maintains or improves overall health. A healthful diet provides the body with essential nutrition: water, macronutrients such as protein, micronutrients such as vitamins, and adequate fibre and food energy.[2][3]

Some healthy foods including beans, grains, cauliflower, cantaloupe, pasta, bread, orange, turkey, fish, carrots, turnips, zucchini, snowpeas, string beans, radishes, asparagus, summer squash, lean beef, tomatoes, and potatoes[1]

search term: land grabbing Wikipedia Page

Land grabbing is the large-scale acquisition of land through buying or leasing of large pieces of land by domestic and transnational companies, governments, and individuals.

1880 cartoon about land speculation in Canada's Northwest Territories. A settler ("R.W.P." ?) moves to the Northwest Territories, only to find multiple signs telling him that there is no land available for him: "Reserved for Friends of the Governm't", "This Land Sold to Speculators", "Gov't Land Policy: Keep Off'n The Grass", "Keep Off Grass", "This Lot Not for Sale", "Go West", "This Land is Sold to an English Company", and "Parties Wishing to Secure Land in Canada, Go to Kansas".

search term: International Food Policy Research Institute Wikipedia Page

The International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) is an international research center focused on agriculture and food systems that provides research-based policy solutions to reduce poverty and end hunger and malnutrition throughout low- and middle-income countries in environmentally sustainable ways. For nearly 50 years, IFPRI has worked with policymakers, academics, non-governmental organizations, the private sector, development practitioners, and others to carry out research, capacity strengthening, and policy communications on food systems, economic development, and poverty reduction.[7][8]

search term: Pacific oyster Wikipedia Page

The Pacific oyster, Japanese oyster, or Miyagi oyster (Magallana gigas[2]) is an oyster native to the Pacific coast of Asia. It has become an introduced species in North America, Australia, Europe, and New Zealand.

search term: viticulture Wikipedia Page

Viticulture (Latin: vitis cultura, "vine-growing"),[1] viniculture (vinis cultura, "wine-growing"),[2] or winegrowing[3] is the cultivation and harvesting of grapes. It is a branch of the science of horticulture. While the native territory of Vitis vinifera, the common grape vine, ranges from Western Europe to the Persian shores of the Caspian Sea, the vine has demonstrated high levels of adaptability to new environments, hence viticulture can be found on every continent except Antarctica.[4]

Wine grapes on Long Island

search term: HLPE Report Wikipedia Page

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search term: Climate change effects Wikipedia Page

Effects of climate change are well documented and growing for Earth's natural environment and human societies. Changes to the climate system include an overall warming trend, changes to precipitation patterns, and more extreme weather. As the climate changes it impacts the natural environment with effects such as more intense forest fires, thawing permafrost, and desertification. These changes impact ecosystems and societies, and can become irreversible once tipping points are crossed. Climate activists are engaged in a range of activities around the world that seek to ameliorate these issues or prevent them from happening.[1]

The primary causes[5] and the wide-ranging impacts[6][7][3]: 3–36 of climate change. Some effects act as positive feedbacks that amplify climate change.[8]

search term: J Wikipedia Page

J (or j) is the tenth letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the modern English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and others worldwide. Its usual name in English is jay (pronounced /ˈdʒeɪ/ ⓘ), with a now-uncommon variant jy /ˈdʒaɪ/.[2][3]

search term: CGIAR Wikipedia Page

CGIAR (formerly the Consultative Group for International Agricultural Research) is a global partnership that unites international organizations engaged in research about food security.[1] CGIAR research aims to reduce rural poverty, increase food security, improve human health and nutrition, and sustainable management of natural resources.[2][3]

search term: Medium confidence Wikipedia Page

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search term: Agroforestry Wikipedia Page

Agroforestry (also known as agro-sylviculture or forest farming) is a land use management system that integrates trees with crops or pasture. It combines agricultural and forestry technologies. As a polyculture system, an agroforestry system can produce timber and wood products, fruits, nuts, other edible plant products, edible mushrooms, medicinal plants, ornamental plants, animals and animal products, and other products from both domesticated and wild species.[1]

Alley cropping of maize and sweet chestnut, Dordogne, France

search term: food systems Wikipedia Page

The term food system describes the interconnected systems and processes that influence nutrition, food, health, community development, and agriculture. A food system includes all processes and infrastructure involved in feeding a population: growing, harvesting, processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consumption, distribution, and disposal of food and food-related items. It also includes the inputs needed and outputs generated at each of these steps.

Quantified hidden costs of agrifood systems by cost category (left) and subcategory (right), 2020

search term: cattle Wikipedia Page

Cattle (Bos taurus) are large, domesticated, bovid ungulates widely kept as livestock. They are prominent modern members of the subfamily Bovinae and the most widespread species of the genus Bos. Mature female cattle are called cows and mature male cattle are bulls. Young female cattle are called heifers, young male cattle are bullocks, and castrated male cattle are known as oxen or steers.

search term: Food security Wikipedia Page

Food security is the state of having reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, healthy food. The availability of food for people of any class, gender, ethnicity, or religion is another element of food protection. Similarly, household food security is considered to exist when all the members of a family have consistent access to enough food for an active, healthy life.[1] Food-secure individuals do not live in hunger or fear of starvation.[2] Food security includes resilience to future disruptions of food supply. Such a disruption could occur due to various risk factors such as droughts and floods, shipping disruptions, fuel shortages, economic instability, and wars.[3] Food insecurity is the opposite of food security: a state where there is only limited or uncertain availability of suitable food.

Women selling produce at a market in Lilongwe, Malawi

search term: aquaculture Wikipedia Page

Aquaculture (less commonly spelled aquiculture),[1] also known as aquafarming, is the controlled cultivation ("farming") of aquatic organisms such as fish, crustaceans, mollusks, algae and other organisms of value such as aquatic plants (e.g. lotus). Aquaculture involves cultivating freshwater, brackish water, and saltwater populations under controlled or semi-natural conditions and can be contrasted with commercial fishing, which is the harvesting of wild fish.[2] Aquaculture is also a practice used for restoring and rehabilitating marine and freshwater ecosystems.[3] Mariculture, commonly known as marine farming, is aquaculture in seawater habitats and lagoons, as opposed to freshwater aquaculture. Pisciculture is a type of aquaculture that consists of fish farming to obtain fish products as food.

Aquaculture fish farming in the fjords south of Castro, Chile

search term: nutrition Wikipedia Page

Nutrition is the biochemical and physiological process by which an organism uses food and water to support its life. The intake of these substances provides organisms with nutrients (divided into macro- and micro-) which can be metabolized to create energy and chemical structures; too much or too little of an essential nutrient can cause malnutrition. Nutritional science, the study of nutrition as a hard science, typically emphasizes human nutrition.

A purple leaf blue butterfly (Amblypodia anita) gathering nutrients from guano

search term: productivity Wikipedia Page

Prescriptive and policy

Labour productivity levels in 2012 in Europe. OECD

search term: agroforestry Wikipedia Page

Agroforestry (also known as agro-sylviculture or forest farming) is a land use management system that integrates trees with crops or pasture. It combines agricultural and forestry technologies. As a polyculture system, an agroforestry system can produce timber and wood products, fruits, nuts, other edible plant products, edible mushrooms, medicinal plants, ornamental plants, animals and animal products, and other products from both domesticated and wild species.[1]

Alley cropping of maize and sweet chestnut, Dordogne, France

search term: livestock Wikipedia Page

Livestock are the domesticated animals that are raised in an agricultural setting to provide labor and produce diversified products for consumption such as meat, eggs, milk, fur, leather, and wool. The term is sometimes used to refer solely to animals which are raised for consumption, and sometimes used to refer solely to farmed ruminants, such as cattle, sheep, and goats.[1] Livestock production are mainly a source for farm work and human consumption.

Cows on a pasture in Austria

search term: Indigenous communities Wikipedia Page

There is no generally accepted definition of Indigenous peoples,[a][1][2][3] although in the 21st century the focus has been on self-identification, cultural difference from other groups in a state, a special relationship with their traditional territory, and an experience of subjugation and discrimination under a dominant cultural model.[4]

A Kaqchikel family in the Patzutzun hamlet of Sololá, Guatemala (1993)

search term: social inequities Wikipedia Page

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search term: pollination Wikipedia Page

Pollination is the transfer of pollen from an anther of a plant to the stigma of a plant, later enabling fertilisation and the production of seeds.[1] Pollinating agents can be animals such as insects, for example bees, beetles or butterflies; birds, and bats; water; wind; and even plants themselves. Pollinating animals travel from plant to plant carrying pollen on their bodies in a vital interaction that allows the transfer of genetic material critical to the reproductive system of most flowering plants.[2] Self-pollination occurs within a closed flower. Pollination often occurs within a species. When pollination occurs between species, it can produce hybrid offspring in nature and in plant breeding work.

Diagram illustrating the process of pollination

search term: drought stress Wikipedia Page

In botany, drought tolerance is the ability by which a plant maintains its biomass production during arid or drought conditions.[1][2][3] Some plants are naturally adapted to dry conditions, surviving with protection mechanisms such as desiccation tolerance, detoxification, or repair of xylem embolism.[3] Other plants, specifically crops like corn, wheat, and rice, have become increasingly tolerant to drought with new varieties created via genetic engineering.[4] From an evolutionary perspective, the type of mycorrhizal associations formed in the roots of plants can determine how fast plants can adapt to drought.

Abiotic stresses (such as drought) induce the expression of the following transcription factors. They bind to cis-elements, resulting in a change in stress response and tolerance.

search term: Food Security Wikipedia Page

Food security is the state of having reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, healthy food. The availability of food for people of any class, gender, ethnicity, or religion is another element of food protection. Similarly, household food security is considered to exist when all the members of a family have consistent access to enough food for an active, healthy life.[1] Food-secure individuals do not live in hunger or fear of starvation.[2] Food security includes resilience to future disruptions of food supply. Such a disruption could occur due to various risk factors such as droughts and floods, shipping disruptions, fuel shortages, economic instability, and wars.[3] Food insecurity is the opposite of food security: a state where there is only limited or uncertain availability of suitable food.

Women selling produce at a market in Lilongwe, Malawi

search term: food Wikipedia Page

Food is any substance consumed by an organism for nutritional support. Food is usually of plant, animal, or fungal origin and contains essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, or minerals. The substance is ingested by an organism and assimilated by the organism's cells to provide energy, maintain life, or support growth. Different species of animals have different feeding behaviours that satisfy the needs of their metabolisms and have evolved to fill specific ecological niches within specific geographical contexts.

Display of various foods

search term: management Wikipedia Page

Management (or managing) is the administration of organizations, whether businesses, nonprofit organizations, or government bodies through business administration, nonprofit management, or the political science sub-field of public administration respectively. It is the process of managing the resources of businesses, governments, and other organizations.

An organization chart for the United States Coast Guard shows the hierarchy of managerial roles in that organization.

search term: income Wikipedia Page

Income is the consumption and saving opportunity gained by an entity within a specified timeframe, which is generally expressed in monetary terms.[1] Income is difficult to define conceptually and the definition may be different across fields.[2][page needed] For example, a person's income in an economic sense may be different from their income as defined by law.[2]

search term: food provisioning Wikipedia Page

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search term: wheat Wikipedia Page

Wheat is a group of wild and domesticated grasses of the genus Triticum (/ˈtrɪtɪkəm/).[3] They are cultivated for their cereal grains, which are staple foods around the world. Well-known wheat species and hybrids include the most widely grown common wheat (T. aestivum), spelt, durum, emmer, einkorn, and Khorasan or Kamut. The archaeological record suggests that wheat was first cultivated in the regions of the Fertile Crescent around 9600 BC.

A: Plant; B ripe ear of corn; 1 spikelet before flowering; 2 the same, flowering and spread, enlarged; 3 flowers with glumes; 4 stamens; 5 pollen; 6 and 7 ovaries with juice scales; 8 and 9 parts of the scar; 10 fruit husks; 11, 12, 13 seeds, natural size and enlarged; 14 the same cut up, enlarged.

search term: Mitigation Options Wikipedia Page

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search term: marine aquaculture Wikipedia Page

Mariculture, sometimes called marine farming or marine aquaculture,[1] is a branch of aquaculture involving the cultivation of marine organisms for food and other animal products, in seawater. Subsets of it include (offshore mariculture), fish farms built on littoral waters (inshore mariculture), or in artificial tanks, ponds or raceways which are filled with seawater (onshore mariculture). An example of the latter is the farming of plankton and seaweed, shellfish like shrimp or oysters, and marine finfish, in saltwater ponds. Non-food products produced by mariculture include: fish meal, nutrient agar, jewellery (e.g. cultured pearls), and cosmetics.

Salmon pens off Vestmanna in the Faroe Islands, an example of inshore mariculture

search term: food security Wikipedia Page

Food security is the state of having reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, healthy food. The availability of food for people of any class, gender, ethnicity, or religion is another element of food protection. Similarly, household food security is considered to exist when all the members of a family have consistent access to enough food for an active, healthy life.[1] Food-secure individuals do not live in hunger or fear of starvation.[2] Food security includes resilience to future disruptions of food supply. Such a disruption could occur due to various risk factors such as droughts and floods, shipping disruptions, fuel shortages, economic instability, and wars.[3] Food insecurity is the opposite of food security: a state where there is only limited or uncertain availability of suitable food.

Women selling produce at a market in Lilongwe, Malawi

search term: food prices Wikipedia Page

Food prices refer to the average price level for food across countries, regions and on a global scale.[1] Food prices affect producers and consumers of food. Price levels depend on the food production process, including food marketing and food distribution. Fluctuation in food prices is determined by a number of compounding factors.[2] Geopolitical events, global demand, exchange rates,[3] government policy, diseases and crop yield, energy costs, availability of natural resources for agriculture,[4] food speculation,[5][6][7] changes in the use of soil and weather events directly affect food prices.[8] To a certain extent, adverse price trends can be counteracted by food politics.

The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Food Price Index 1961–2021 in nominal and real terms. The Real Price Index is the Nominal Price Index deflated by the World Bank Manufactures Unit Value Index (MUV). Years 2014–2016 is 100.

search term: phenology Wikipedia Page

Phenology is the study of periodic events in biological life cycles and how these are influenced by seasonal and interannual variations in climate, as well as habitat factors (such as elevation).[1]

Historical day of year for first bloom index (FBI) for the Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve, Kansas (dots) fitted with a local polynomial regression model (loess in red) and a 2 standard error band (blue). Data from William Monahan.[16]

search term: crops Wikipedia Page

A crop is a plant that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence.[1] A crop is a plant or plant product that is grown for a specific purpose such as food, fibre, or fuel.[citation needed]

Domesticated plants of the New World. Clockwise from top left: maize, tomato, potato, vanilla, rubber, cocoa bean and tobacco.

search term: rural livelihoods Wikipedia Page

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search term: rice Wikipedia Page

Rice is a cereal grain and in its domesticated form is the staple food of over half of the world's population, particularly in Asia and Africa. Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa (Asian rice)—or, much less commonly, Oryza glaberrima (African rice). Asian rice was domesticated in China some 13,500 to 8,200 years ago; African rice was domesticated in Africa about 3,000 years ago. Rice has become commonplace in many cultures worldwide; in 2023, 800 million tons were produced, placing it third after sugarcane and maize. Only some 8% of rice is traded internationally. China, India, and Indonesia are the largest consumers of rice. A substantial amount of the rice produced in developing nations is lost after harvest through factors such as poor transport and storage. Rice yields can be reduced by pests including insects, rodents, and birds, as well as by weeds, and by diseases such as rice blast. Traditional rice polycultures such as rice-duck farming, and modern integrated pest management seek to control damage from pests in a sustainable way.

Rice plant (Oryza sativa) with branched panicles containing many grains on each stem

search term: livestock production Wikipedia Page

Intensive agriculture, also known as intensive farming (as opposed to extensive farming), conventional, or industrial agriculture, is a type of agriculture, both of crop plants and of animals, with higher levels of input and output per unit of agricultural land area. It is characterized by a low fallow ratio, higher use of inputs such as capital, labour, agrochemicals and water, and higher crop yields per unit land area.[1]

Intensive farming of wheat in Lund, Sweden

search term: FAO Wikipedia Page

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations[note 1] (FAO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger and improve nutrition and food security. Its Latin motto, fiat panis, translates to "let there be bread". It was founded on 16 October 1945.[2]

search term: Pastoralism Wikipedia Page

Pastoralism is a form of animal husbandry where domesticated animals (known as "livestock") are released onto large vegetated outdoor lands (pastures) for grazing, historically by nomadic people who moved around with their herds.[2] The animal species involved include cattle, camels, goats, yaks, llamas, reindeer, horses, and sheep.[3]

Pastoral site at Tangnu village, Rohru in Himachal Pradesh, India

search term: crop production Wikipedia Page

Agriculture is the practice of cultivating the soil, planting, raising, and harvesting both food and non-food crops, as well as livestock production. Broader definitions also include forestry and aquaculture. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated plants and animals created food surpluses that enabled people to live in the cities. While humans started gathering grains at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers only began planting them around 11,500 years ago. Sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle were domesticated around 10,000 years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. In the 20th century, industrial agriculture based on large-scale monocultures came to dominate agricultural output.

Modern agriculture: a center pivot irrigation system on a field

search term: food insecurity Wikipedia Page

Food security is the state of having reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, healthy food. The availability of food for people of any class, gender, ethnicity, or religion is another element of food protection. Similarly, household food security is considered to exist when all the members of a family have consistent access to enough food for an active, healthy life.[1] Food-secure individuals do not live in hunger or fear of starvation.[2] Food security includes resilience to future disruptions of food supply. Such a disruption could occur due to various risk factors such as droughts and floods, shipping disruptions, fuel shortages, economic instability, and wars.[3] Food insecurity is the opposite of food security: a state where there is only limited or uncertain availability of suitable food.

Women selling produce at a market in Lilongwe, Malawi

search term: incentives Wikipedia Page

Incentives are anything that persuade a person or organization to alter their behavior to produce a desired outcome.

Payoffs of two employees assigned to a group project and faced with the choice of working hard or free riding.

search term: Climate change impacts Wikipedia Page

Effects of climate change are well documented and growing for Earth's natural environment and human societies. Changes to the climate system include an overall warming trend, changes to precipitation patterns, and more extreme weather. As the climate changes it impacts the natural environment with effects such as more intense forest fires, thawing permafrost, and desertification. These changes impact ecosystems and societies, and can become irreversible once tipping points are crossed. Climate activists are engaged in a range of activities around the world that seek to ameliorate these issues or prevent them from happening.[1]

The primary causes[5] and the wide-ranging impacts[6][7][3]: 3–36 of climate change. Some effects act as positive feedbacks that amplify climate change.[8]

search term: forestry Wikipedia Page

Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests and woodlands for associated resources for human and environmental benefits.[1] Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands.[2] The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences.[3] Forest management plays an essential role in the creation and modification of habitats and affects ecosystem services provisioning.[4] A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester.

A Timberjack wheeled harvester stacking cut timber in Finland

search term: pastoralists Wikipedia Page

Pastoralism is a form of animal husbandry where domesticated animals (known as "livestock") are released onto large vegetated outdoor lands (pastures) for grazing, historically by nomadic people who moved around with their herds.[2] The animal species involved include cattle, camels, goats, yaks, llamas, reindeer, horses, and sheep.[3]

Pastoral site at Tangnu village, Rohru in Himachal Pradesh, India

search term: ozone Wikipedia Page

Ozone (/ˈoʊzoʊn/ ⓘ), also called trioxygen, is an inorganic molecule with the chemical formula O
3. It is a pale-blue gas with a distinctively pungent odor. It is an allotrope of oxygen that is much less stable than the diatomic allotrope O
2, breaking down in the lower atmosphere to O
2 (dioxygen). Ozone is formed from dioxygen by the action of ultraviolet (UV) light and electrical discharges within the Earth's atmosphere. It is present in very low concentrations throughout the atmosphere, with its highest concentration high in the ozone layer of the stratosphere, which absorbs most of the Sun's ultraviolet (UV) radiation.

search term: Cambodia Wikipedia Page

Cambodia,[a] officially the Kingdom of Cambodia,[b] is a country in Mainland Southeast Asia. It is bordered by Thailand to the northwest, Laos to the north, and Vietnam to the east, and has a coastline along the Gulf of Thailand in the southwest. It spans an area of 181,035 square kilometres (69,898 square miles), dominated by a low-lying plain and the confluence of the Mekong river and Tonlé Sap, Southeast Asia's largest lake. It is dominated by a tropical climate. Cambodia has a population of about 17 million people,[8] the majority of which are ethnically Khmer. Its capital and most populous city is Phnom Penh, followed by Siem Reap and Battambang.[18]

Glazed stoneware dating back to the 12th century

search term: food production Wikipedia Page

The food industry is a complex, global network of diverse businesses that supplies most of the food consumed by the world's population. The food industry today has become highly diversified, with manufacturing ranging from small, traditional, family-run activities that are highly labour-intensive, to large, capital-intensive and highly mechanized industrial processes. Many food industries depend almost entirely on local agriculture, animal farms, produce, and/or fishing.[1]

Packaged food aisles at an American grocery store

search term: maize Wikipedia Page

Maize (/meɪz/; Zea mays), also known as corn in North American English, is a tall stout grass that produces cereal grain. The leafy stalk of the plant gives rise to male inflorescences or tassels which produce pollen, and female inflorescences called ears. The ears yield grain, known as kernels or seeds. In modern commercial varieties, these are usually yellow or white; other varieties can be of many colors. Maize was domesticated by indigenous peoples in southern Mexico about 9,000 years ago from wild teosinte. Native Americans planted it alongside beans and squashes in the Three Sisters polyculture.

Mature maize (husk removed)

search term: Climate services Wikipedia Page

Climate information services (CIS) entail the dissemination of climate data in a way that aids people and organizations in making decisions. CIS helps its users foresee and control the hazards associated with a changing and unpredictable climate.[1] It encompasses a knowledge loop that includes targeted user communities' access to, interpretation of, communication of, and use of pertinent, accurate, and trustworthy climate information, as well as their feedback on that use. Climate information services involve the timely production, translation and delivery of useful climate data, information and knowledge.[2]

search term: Land Use Policy Wikipedia Page

Land use policy is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal covering various aspects of land use research. It is published by Elsevier and was established in 2004. The editors-in-chief are Uchendu Chigbu (Namibia University of Science and Technology) and Xiaoling Zhang (University of Hong Kong).[1]

search term: marine fisheries Wikipedia Page

Fishery can mean either the enterprise of raising or harvesting fish and other aquatic life[1] or, more commonly, the site where such enterprise takes place (a.k.a., fishing grounds).[2] Commercial fisheries include wild fisheries and fish farms, both in freshwater waterbodies (about 10% of all catch) and the oceans (about 90%). About 500 million people worldwide are economically dependent on fisheries. 171 million tonnes of fish were produced in 2016, but overfishing is an increasing problem, causing declines in some populations.

Salmon spawn in a salmon fishery within the Becharof Wilderness in Southwest Alaska.

search term: staple crops Wikipedia Page

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search term: Niger Wikipedia Page

Niger,[a] officially the Republic of the Niger,[b] is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is a unitary state bordered by Libya to the northeast, Chad to the east, Nigeria to the south, Benin and Burkina Faso to the southwest, Mali to the west, and Algeria to the northwest. It covers a land area of almost 1.27 million km2 (490,000 sq mi), making it the largest landlocked country in West Africa and the second-largest landlocked nation in Africa behind Chad. Over 80% of its land area lies in the Sahara. Its predominantly Muslim population of about 25 million[17][18] lives mostly in clusters in the south and west of the country. The capital, Niamey, is located in Niger's southwest corner along the namesake Niger River.

Rock engraving showing herds of giraffe, ibex, and other animals in the southern Sahara near Tiguidit, Niger

search term: Modelling Wikipedia Page

A model is an informative representation of an object, person, or system. The term originally denoted the plans of a building in late 16th-century English, and derived via French and Italian ultimately from Latin modulus, 'a measure'.[1]

Model of a molecule, with coloured balls representing different atoms

search term: smallholders Wikipedia Page

A smallholding or smallholder is a small farm operating under a small-scale agriculture model.[2] Definitions vary widely for what constitutes a smallholder or small-scale farm, including factors such as size, food production technique or technology, involvement of family in labor and economic impact.[3] There are an estimated 500 million smallholder farms in developing countries of the world alone, supporting almost two billion people.[4][5] Smallholdings are usually farms supporting a single family with a mixture of cash crops and subsistence farming. As a country becomes more affluent, smallholdings may not be self-sufficient. Still, they may be valued for providing supplemental sustenance, recreation, and general rural lifestyle appreciation (often as hobby farms). As the sustainable food and local food movements grow in affluent countries, some of these smallholdings are gaining increased economic viability in the developed world as well.

Female smallholder farmers in Kenya. In many parts of Africa and other parts of the world, women are the primary smallholders. In many contexts, women face unequal access to land, markets, knowledge, and other assets needed to maintain their farms.[1]

search term: s Wikipedia Page

S, or s, is the nineteenth letter of the Latin alphabet, used in the English alphabet, the alphabets of other western European languages and other latin alphabets worldwide. Its name in English is ess[a] (pronounced /ˈɛs/ ⓘ), plural esses.[1]

search term: humanity Wikipedia Page

Humanity most commonly refers to:

search term: medium agreement Wikipedia Page

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search term: urban agriculture Wikipedia Page

Urban agriculture refers to various practices of cultivating, processing, and distributing food in urban areas.[1][2] The term also applies to the area activities of animal husbandry, aquaculture, beekeeping, and horticulture in an urban context. Urban agriculture is distinguished from peri-urban agriculture, which takes place in rural areas at the edge of suburbs.[3] In many urban areas, efforts to expand agriculture also require addressing legacy soil contamination, particularly from lead and other heavy metals, which can pose risks to human health and food safety.[4][5]

An urban farm in Chicago.

search term: pathogens Wikipedia Page

In biology, a pathogen (Greek: πάθος, pathos "suffering", "passion" and -γενής, -genēs "producer of"), in the oldest and broadest sense, is any organism or agent that can produce disease. A pathogen may also be referred to as an infectious agent, or simply a germ.[1]

A photomicrograph of a stool that has shigella dysentery. These bacteria typically cause foodborne illness.

search term: inland fisheries Wikipedia Page

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search term: global Wikipedia Page

search term: crop yields Wikipedia Page

In agriculture, the yield is a measurement of the amount of a crop grown, or product such as wool, meat or milk produced, per unit area of land. The seed ratio is another way of calculating yields.

Cereal yield in tons per hectare and kilograms of nitrogenous fertilizer applied per hectare of cropland.

search term: livelihood resilience Wikipedia Page

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search term: livelihood diversification Wikipedia Page

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search term: NBS Wikipedia Page

search term: settlements Wikipedia Page

Settlement may refer to:

search term: urban heat island Wikipedia Page

Urban areas usually experience the urban heat island (UHI) effect; that is, they are significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas. The temperature difference is usually larger at night than during the day,[1] and is most apparent when winds are weak, under block conditions, noticeably during the summer and winter. The main cause of the UHI effect is from the modification of land surfaces, while waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor.[2][3][4] Urban areas occupy about 0.5% of the Earth's land surface but host more than half of the world's population.[5] As a population center grows, it tends to expand its area and increase its average temperature. The term heat island is also used; the term can be used to refer to any area that is relatively hotter than the surrounding, but generally refers to human-disturbed areas.[6]

Example of dense urban living without green spaces which leads to a pronounced urban heat island effect (Milan, Italy)

search term: institutional change Wikipedia Page

Neo institutionalism (also referred to as neo-institutionalist theory or institutionalism) is an approach to the study of institutions that focuses on the constraining and enabling effects of formal and informal rules on the behavior of individuals and groups.[1] New institutionalism traditionally encompasses three major strands: sociological institutionalism, rational choice institutionalism, and historical institutionalism.[2][3] New institutionalism originated in work by sociologist John Meyer published in 1977.[4]

search term: key infrastructure Wikipedia Page

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search term: urban development Wikipedia Page

Urban planning (also called city planning or town planning in some contexts) is the process of developing and designing land use and the built environment, including air, water, and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas, such as transportation, communications, and distribution networks, and their accessibility.[1] Traditionally, urban planning followed a top-down approach in master planning the physical layout of human settlements.[2] The primary concern was the public welfare,[1][2] which included considerations of efficiency, sanitation, protection and use of the environment,[1] as well as taking account of effects of the master plans on the social and economic activities.[3] Over time, urban planning has adopted a focus on the social and environmental "bottom lines" that focuses on using planning as a tool to improve the health and well-being of people and maintain sustainability standards. In the early 21st century, urban planning experts such as Jane Jacobs called on urban planners to take resident experiences and needs more into consideration.

Partizánske in Slovakia – an example of a typical planned European industrial town founded in 1938 together with a shoemaking factory in which practically all adult inhabitants of the city were employed

search term: urban populations Wikipedia Page

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search term: urban communities Wikipedia Page

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search term: land use planning Wikipedia Page

Land use planning or land-use regulation is the process of regulating the use of land by a central authority. Usually, this is done to promote more desirable social and environmental outcomes as well as a more efficient use of resources. More specifically, the goals of modern land use planning often include environmental conservation, restraint of urban sprawl, minimization of transport costs, prevention of land use conflicts, and a reduction in exposure to pollutants. In the pursuit of these goals, planners assume that regulating the use of land will change the patterns of human behavior, and that these changes are beneficial. The first assumption, that regulating land use changes the patterns of human behavior is widely accepted. However, the second assumption – that these changes are beneficial – is contested, and depends on the location and regulations being discussed.

Suburban development near Colorado Springs, Colorado, United States

search term: urban governance Wikipedia Page

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search term: Urban Agenda Wikipedia Page

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search term: zoning Wikipedia Page

In urban planning, zoning is a method in which a municipality or other tier of government divides land into land-use and building "zones", each of which has a set of regulations for new development that differs from other zones. Zones may be defined for a single use (e.g. residential, industrial), they may combine several compatible activities by use, or in the case of form-based zoning, the differing regulations may govern the density, size and shape of allowed buildings whatever their use. The planning rules for each zone determine whether planning permission for a given development may be granted. Zoning may specify a variety of outright and conditional uses of land. It may indicate the size and dimensions of lots that land may be subdivided into, or the form and scale of buildings. These guidelines are set in order to guide urban growth and development.[1][2]

The Zoning Scheme of the General Spatial Plan for the City of Skopje, North Macedonia. Different urban zoning areas are represented by different colours.

search term: physical infrastructure Wikipedia Page

Infrastructure is the set of facilities and systems that serve a country, city, or other area,[1] and encompasses the services and facilities necessary for its economy, households and firms to function.[2] Infrastructure is composed of public and private physical structures such as roads, railways, bridges, airports, public transit systems, tunnels, water supply, sewers, electrical grids, and telecommunications (including Internet connectivity and broadband access). In general, infrastructure has been defined as "the physical components of interrelated systems providing commodities and services essential to enable, sustain, or enhance societal living conditions" and maintain the surrounding environment.[3]

San Francisco Ferry Building, The Embarcadero, and the Bay Bridge at night, all examples of infrastructure

search term: Urbanisation Wikipedia Page

Urbanization (or urbanisation in British English) is the population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It can also mean population growth in urban areas instead of rural ones.[1] It is predominantly the process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more people begin to live and work in central areas.[2]

Global urbanization map showing the percentage of urbanization and the biggest global population centres per country in 2018, based on UN estimates.

search term: urban Wikipedia Page

Urban means "related to a city". In that sense, the term may refer to:

search term: urban flooding Wikipedia Page

Urban flooding is the inundation of land or property in cities or other built environment, caused by rainfall or coastal storm surges overwhelming the capacity of drainage systems, such as storm sewers. Urban flooding can occur regardless of whether or not affected communities are located within designated floodplains or near any body of water.[1] It is triggered for example by an overflow of rivers and lakes, flash flooding or snowmelt. During the flood, stormwater or water released from damaged water mains may accumulate on property and in public rights-of-way. It can seep through building walls and floors, or backup into buildings through sewer pipes, cellars, toilets and sinks.

Flooding in Porto Alegre of the Lagoa dos Patos in Brazil during May 2024

search term: ICT Wikipedia Page

search term: Urban Areas Wikipedia Page

An urban area[a] is a human settlement with a high population density and an infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas originate through urbanization, and researchers categorize them as cities, towns, conurbations or suburbs. In urbanism, the term "urban area" contrasts to rural areas such as villages and hamlets; in urban sociology or urban anthropology, it often contrasts with natural environment.

Skyline of Seoul at night

search term: transformative capacity Wikipedia Page

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search term: Urbanization Wikipedia Page

Urbanization (or urbanisation in British English) is the population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It can also mean population growth in urban areas instead of rural ones.[1] It is predominantly the process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more people begin to live and work in central areas.[2]

Global urbanization map showing the percentage of urbanization and the biggest global population centres per country in 2018, based on UN estimates.

search term: green roofs Wikipedia Page

A green roof or living roof is a roof of a building that is partially or completely covered with vegetation and a growing medium, planted over a waterproofing membrane. It may also include additional layers such as a root barrier and drainage, and irrigation systems.[1] Container gardens on roofs, where plants are maintained in pots, are not generally considered to be true green roofs, although this is debated. Rooftop ponds are another form of green roofs, which are used to treat greywater.[2] Vegetation, soil, drainage layer, roof barrier, and irrigation system constitute the green roof.[3]

Green roof at the British Horse Society headquarters

search term: social vulnerability Wikipedia Page

In its broadest sense, social vulnerability is one dimension of vulnerability to multiple stressors and shocks, including abuse, social exclusion and natural hazards. Social vulnerability refers to the inability of people, organizations, and societies to withstand adverse impacts from multiple stressors to which they are exposed. These impacts are due in part to characteristics inherent in social interactions, institutions, and systems of cultural values.

Risk-Hazard (RH) model,[7] showing the impact of a hazard as a function of exposure and sensitivity. The chain sequence begins with the hazard, and the concept of vulnerability is noted implicitly as represented by white arrows.

search term: local governments Wikipedia Page

Local government is a generic term for the lowest tiers of governance or public administration within a particular sovereign state.

Meeting of Jyväskylä's city council in 1925

search term: urban settlements Wikipedia Page

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search term: urban systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: Cities Wikipedia Page

A city is a human settlement of a substantial size. The term "city" has different meanings around the world and in some places the settlement can be very small. Even where the term is limited to larger settlements, there is no universally agreed definition of the lower boundary for their size.[1][2] In a narrower sense, a city can be defined as a permanent and densely populated place with administratively defined boundaries whose members work primarily on non-agricultural tasks.[3] Cities generally have extensive systems for housing, transportation, sanitation, utilities, land use, production of goods, and communication. Their density facilitates interaction between people, government organizations, and businesses, sometimes benefiting different parties in the process, such as improving the efficiency of goods and service distribution.

Palitana is a religiously significant city in Gujarat, India.[12]

search term: urban climate resilience Wikipedia Page

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search term: cascading risks Wikipedia Page

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search term: thermal comfort Wikipedia Page

Thermal comfort is the condition of mind that expresses subjective satisfaction with the thermal environment.[1] The human body can be viewed as a heat engine where food is the input energy. The human body will release excess heat into the environment, so the body can continue to operate. The heat transfer is proportional to temperature difference. In cold environments, the body loses more heat to the environment and in hot environments the body does not release enough heat. Both the hot and cold scenarios lead to discomfort.[2] Maintaining this standard of thermal comfort for occupants of buildings or other enclosures is one of the important goals of HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) design engineers.

A thermal image of clothed human

search term: stormwater management Wikipedia Page

Stormwater, also written storm water, is water that originates from precipitation (storm), including heavy rain and meltwater from hail and snow. Stormwater can soak into the soil (infiltrate) and become groundwater, be stored on depressed land surface in ponds and puddles, evaporate back into the atmosphere, or contribute to surface runoff. Most runoff is conveyed directly as surface water to nearby streams, rivers or other large water bodies (wetlands, lakes and oceans) without treatment.

Urban runoff entering a storm drain

search term: Infrastructure Wikipedia Page

Infrastructure is the set of facilities and systems that serve a country, city, or other area,[1] and encompasses the services and facilities necessary for its economy, households and firms to function.[2] Infrastructure is composed of public and private physical structures such as roads, railways, bridges, airports, public transit systems, tunnels, water supply, sewers, electrical grids, and telecommunications (including Internet connectivity and broadband access). In general, infrastructure has been defined as "the physical components of interrelated systems providing commodities and services essential to enable, sustain, or enhance societal living conditions" and maintain the surrounding environment.[3]

San Francisco Ferry Building, The Embarcadero, and the Bay Bridge at night, all examples of infrastructure

search term: urban trees Wikipedia Page

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search term: social infrastructure Wikipedia Page

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search term: urban contexts Wikipedia Page

The page "Urban contexts" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: urban centres Wikipedia Page

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search term: NGOs Wikipedia Page

A non-governmental organization (NGO) is an entity that is not part of the government. This can include non-profit and for-profit entities. An NGO may get a significant percentage or even all of its funding from government sources. An NGO typically is thought to be a nonprofit organization that operates partially independent of government control. Nonprofit NGOs often focus on humanitarian or social issues but can also include clubs and associations offering services to members. Some nonprofit NGOs, like the World Economic Forum, may also act as lobby groups for corporations. Unlike international organizations (IOs), which directly interact with sovereign states and governments, NGOs are independent from them.

Europe-Georgia Institute head George Melashvili addresses the audience at the launch of the "Europe in a suitcase" project by two NGOs (the EGI and the Friedrich Naumann Foundation), which aims to increase cooperation between European politicians, journalists and representatives of the civic sector and academia with their counterparts in Georgia.[14]

search term: social media Wikipedia Page

Social media are new media technologies that facilitate the creation, sharing and aggregation of content (such as ideas, interests, and other forms of expression) amongst virtual communities and networks.[1][2] Common features include:[2]

A variety of popular social media app icons

search term: cold waves Wikipedia Page

A cold wave (known in some regions as a cold snap, cold spell or Arctic Snap) is a weather phenomenon that is distinguished by a cooling of the air. Specifically, as used by the U.S. National Weather Service, a cold wave is a rapid fall in temperature within a 24-hour period requiring substantially increased protection to agriculture, industry, commerce, and social activities. The precise criteria for a cold wave are the rate at which the temperature falls, and the minimum to which it falls. This minimum temperature is dependent on the geographical region and time of year.[1]

search term: infrastructure systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: urban infrastructure Wikipedia Page

Infrastructure is the set of facilities and systems that serve a country, city, or other area,[1] and encompasses the services and facilities necessary for its economy, households and firms to function.[2] Infrastructure is composed of public and private physical structures such as roads, railways, bridges, airports, public transit systems, tunnels, water supply, sewers, electrical grids, and telecommunications (including Internet connectivity and broadband access). In general, infrastructure has been defined as "the physical components of interrelated systems providing commodities and services essential to enable, sustain, or enhance societal living conditions" and maintain the surrounding environment.[3]

San Francisco Ferry Building, The Embarcadero, and the Bay Bridge at night, all examples of infrastructure

search term: urban sustainability Wikipedia Page

Sustainable urbanism is both the study of cities and the practices to build them (urbanism), that focuses on promoting their long term viability by reducing consumption, waste and harmful impacts on people and place while enhancing the overall well-being of both people and place.[1][2] Well-being includes the physical, ecological, economic, social, health and equity factors, among others, that comprise cities and their populations. In the context of contemporary urbanism, the term "cities" refers to several scales of human settlements from towns to cities, metropolises and mega-city regions that includes their peripheries / suburbs / exurbs.[3] Sustainability is a key component to professional practice in urban planning and urban design along with its related disciplines landscape architecture, architecture, and civil and environmental engineering.[4][5] Green urbanism and ecological urbanism are other common terms that are similar to sustainable urbanism, however they can be construed as focusing more on the natural environment and ecosystems and less on economic and social aspects.[6] Also related to sustainable urbanism are the practices of land development called Sustainable development, which is the process of physically constructing sustainable buildings, as well as the practices of urban planning called smart growth or growth management, which denote the processes of planning, designing, and building urban settlements that are more sustainable than if they were not planned according to sustainability criteria and principles.[7]

Energy efficiency of different transport modes

search term: climate gentrification Wikipedia Page

Climate gentrification is a subset of climate migration, in which certain lower-socioeconomic communities are displaced in place of housing for more wealthy communities.[1] Areas affected by this phenomenon are typically coastal cities, islands, and other vulnerable areas that are susceptible to rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and other climate-related disasters.[1]

search term: Covenant of Mayors Wikipedia Page

The Covenant of Mayors[1] is a European co-operation movement involving local and regional authorities. Signatories of the Covenant of Mayors voluntarily commit to increasing energy efficiency and the use of renewable energy sources on their territories. By their commitment, they support the European Union 20% CO2 reduction objective to be reached by 2020.

search term: energy infrastructure Wikipedia Page

Energy development is the field of activities focused on obtaining sources of energy from natural resources.[citation needed] These activities include the production of renewable, nuclear, and fossil fuel derived sources of energy, and for the recovery and reuse of energy that would otherwise be wasted. Energy conservation and efficiency measures reduce the demand for energy development, and can have benefits to society with improvements to environmental issues.

World consumption by source in 2022[1]

search term: urban expansion Wikipedia Page

Urban sprawl (also known as suburban sprawl or urban encroachment)[1] is defined as "the spreading of urban developments (such as houses and shopping centers) on undeveloped land near a city".[2][3][4][5] Urban sprawl has been described as the unrestricted growth in many urban areas of housing, commercial development, and roads over large expanses of land, with little concern for very dense urban planning. Sometimes the urban areas described as the most "sprawling" are the most densely populated.[6][7] In addition to describing a special form of urbanization, the term also relates to the social and environmental consequences associated with this development.[8] In modern times some suburban areas described as "sprawl" have less detached housing and higher density than the nearby core city.[9][10][11] Medieval suburbs suffered from the loss of protection of city walls, before the advent of industrial warfare. Modern disadvantages and costs include increased travel time, transport costs, pollution, and destruction of the countryside.[12] The revenue for building and maintaining urban infrastructure in these areas are gained mostly through property and sales taxes. Most jobs in the US are now located in suburbs generating much of the revenue, although a lack of growth will require higher tax rates.[13][14][15]

A typical suburban development in the United States, located in Chandler, Arizona

search term: housing Wikipedia Page

Housing is a shelter used as a dwelling or living space by individuals, families, or a collective. It provides a space for preparing food, storing belongings, caring for children and the elderly, and maintaining privacy. Housing also refers to the act of providing shelter or protective cover.

Industrialization brought mass migration to cities. This one-room worker home from Helsinki from 1911 represents an attempt by the city government to improve the conditions of workers; for example, electricity and running water were installed in this row house.

search term: youth Wikipedia Page

Youth is the time of life when one is young. The word, youth, can also mean the time between childhood and adulthood (maturity), but it can also refer to one's peak, in terms of health or the period of life known as being a young adult.[1][2] Youth is also defined as "the appearance, freshness, vigor, spirit, etc., characteristic of one, who is young".[3] Its definitions of a specific age range varies, as youth is not defined chronologically as a stage that can be tied to specific age ranges; nor can its end point be linked to specific activities, such as taking unpaid work, or having sexual relations.[4][5]

A group of college-aged girls in the United States, 1973.

search term: infrastructures Wikipedia Page

Infrastructure is the set of facilities and systems that serve a country, city, or other area,[1] and encompasses the services and facilities necessary for its economy, households and firms to function.[2] Infrastructure is composed of public and private physical structures such as roads, railways, bridges, airports, public transit systems, tunnels, water supply, sewers, electrical grids, and telecommunications (including Internet connectivity and broadband access). In general, infrastructure has been defined as "the physical components of interrelated systems providing commodities and services essential to enable, sustain, or enhance societal living conditions" and maintain the surrounding environment.[3]

San Francisco Ferry Building, The Embarcadero, and the Bay Bridge at night, all examples of infrastructure

search term: informal urban settlements Wikipedia Page

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search term: urban heat islands Wikipedia Page

Urban areas usually experience the urban heat island (UHI) effect; that is, they are significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas. The temperature difference is usually larger at night than during the day,[1] and is most apparent when winds are weak, under block conditions, noticeably during the summer and winter. The main cause of the UHI effect is from the modification of land surfaces, while waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor.[2][3][4] Urban areas occupy about 0.5% of the Earth's land surface but host more than half of the world's population.[5] As a population center grows, it tends to expand its area and increase its average temperature. The term heat island is also used; the term can be used to refer to any area that is relatively hotter than the surrounding, but generally refers to human-disturbed areas.[6]

Example of dense urban living without green spaces which leads to a pronounced urban heat island effect (Milan, Italy)

search term: urban climate adaptation Wikipedia Page

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search term: flood risks Wikipedia Page

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search term: Planning Wikipedia Page

Planning is the process of thinking regarding the activities required to achieve a desired goal. Planning is based on foresight, the fundamental capacity for mental time travel. Some researchers regard the evolution of forethought - the capacity to think ahead - as a prime mover in human evolution.[1] Planning is a fundamental property of intelligent behavior.[citation needed] It involves the use of logic and imagination to visualize not only a desired result, but the steps necessary to achieve that result.

The striatum; part of the basal ganglia; neural pathways between the striatum and the frontal lobe have been implicated in planning function.

search term: water infrastructure Wikipedia Page

A water supply network or water supply system is a system of engineered hydrologic and hydraulic components that provide water supply. A water supply system typically includes the following:

Typical urban water cycle in the United States

search term: demographics Wikipedia Page

Demography (from Ancient Greek δῆμος (dêmos) 'people, society' and -γραφία (-graphía) 'writing, drawing, description')[1] is the statistical study of human populations: their size, composition (e.g., ethnic group, age), and how they change through the interplay of fertility (births), mortality (deaths), and migration.[2]

The Demography of the World Population from 1950 to 2100. Data source: United Nations — World Population Prospects 2017

search term: LMICs Wikipedia Page

A developing country is a country with a less-developed industrial base and a lower Human Development Index (HDI) relative to developed countries.[3] However, this definition is not universally agreed upon. There is also no clear agreement on which countries fit this category.[4][5] The terms low-and middle-income country (LMIC) and newly emerging economy (NEE) are often used interchangeably but they refer only to the economy of the countries. The World Bank classifies the world's economies into four groups, based on gross national income per capita: high-, upper-middle-, lower-middle-, and low-income countries. Least developed countries, landlocked developing countries, and small island developing states are all sub-groupings of developing countries. Countries on the other end of the spectrum are usually referred to as high-income countries or developed countries.

Advanced/developed markets by the IMF
Emerging/developing markets by the IMF
Least developed countries by the UN
Data unavailable
The latest classifications sorted by the IMF[1] and the UN[2]

search term: urban forests Wikipedia Page

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search term: street trees Wikipedia Page

Urban forestry is the care and management of single trees and tree populations in urban settings for the purpose of improving the urban environment. Also called urban tree canopy,[1][2][3] urban forestry involves both planning and management, including the programming of care and maintenance operations of the urban forest.[4]

Urban forestry in New York City.

search term: urban form Wikipedia Page

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search term: Los Angeles Wikipedia Page

Los Angeles[b] (L.A.) is the most populous city in the U.S. state of California, and the commercial, financial, and cultural center of Southern California. With an estimated 3.88 million residents within the city limits as of 2024[update],[8] it is the second-most populous city in the United States, behind New York City. Los Angeles has an ethnically and culturally diverse population, and is the principal city of a metropolitan area of 12.9 million people (2024). Greater Los Angeles, a combined statistical area that includes the Los Angeles and Riverside–San Bernardino metropolitan areas, is a sprawling metropolis of over 18.5 million residents.

Yaanga, a prominent Tongva village, stood in the area before Spanish colonialists founded Los Angeles.

search term: ICTs Wikipedia Page

Early research and development:

A mindmap of ICTs

search term: private finance Wikipedia Page

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search term: Bengaluru Wikipedia Page

Bengaluru,[a] also known as Bangalore (its official name until 1 November 2014), is the capital and largest city of the southern Indian state of Karnataka. As per the 2011 census, the city had a population of 8.4 million, making it the third most populous city in India and the most populous in South India. The Bengaluru metropolitan area had a population of around 8.5 million, making it the fifth most populous urban agglomeration in the country. It is located near the centre of the Deccan Plateau, at a height of 900 m (3,000 ft) above sea level. The city is known as India's "Garden City", due to its parks and greenery.

Begur Nageshwara Temple was built around c.860, during the reign of the Western Ganga dynasty.

search term: policy action gap Wikipedia Page

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search term: Himalayas Wikipedia Page

The Himalayas, or Himalaya (/ˌhɪməˈleɪ.ə, hɪˈmɑːləjə/ HIM-ə-LAY-ə, hih-MAH-lə-yə)[b], is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the Earth's highest peaks, including the highest, Mount Everest. More than 100 peaks exceeding elevations of 7,200 m (23,600 ft) above sea level lie in the Himalayas.

search term: Semarang Wikipedia Page

Semarang (Javanese: ꦏꦸꦛꦯꦼꦩꦫꦁ, Kutha Semarang) is the capital and largest city of Central Java province in Indonesia. It was a major port during the Dutch colonial era, and is still an important regional center and port today. The city has been named as the cleanest tourist destination in Southeast Asia by the ASEAN Clean Tourist City Standard (ACTCS) for 2020–2022.[6]

search term: urban risk Wikipedia Page

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search term: infrastructure services Wikipedia Page

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search term: risk assessments Wikipedia Page

Risk assessment is a process for identifying hazards, potential (future) events which may negatively impact on individuals, assets, and/or the environment because of those hazards, their likelihood and consequences, and actions which can mitigate these effects. The output from such a process may also be called a risk assessment. Hazard analysis forms the first stage of a risk assessment process. Judgments "on the tolerability of the risk on the basis of a risk analysis" (i.e. risk evaluation) also form part of the process.[1][2] The results of a risk assessment process may be expressed in a quantitative or qualitative fashion.[3]

Risk assessment and risk management Venn diagram

search term: urban growth Wikipedia Page

Urban sprawl (also known as suburban sprawl or urban encroachment)[1] is defined as "the spreading of urban developments (such as houses and shopping centers) on undeveloped land near a city".[2][3][4][5] Urban sprawl has been described as the unrestricted growth in many urban areas of housing, commercial development, and roads over large expanses of land, with little concern for very dense urban planning. Sometimes the urban areas described as the most "sprawling" are the most densely populated.[6][7] In addition to describing a special form of urbanization, the term also relates to the social and environmental consequences associated with this development.[8] In modern times some suburban areas described as "sprawl" have less detached housing and higher density than the nearby core city.[9][10][11] Medieval suburbs suffered from the loss of protection of city walls, before the advent of industrial warfare. Modern disadvantages and costs include increased travel time, transport costs, pollution, and destruction of the countryside.[12] The revenue for building and maintaining urban infrastructure in these areas are gained mostly through property and sales taxes. Most jobs in the US are now located in suburbs generating much of the revenue, although a lack of growth will require higher tax rates.[13][14][15]

A typical suburban development in the United States, located in Chandler, Arizona

search term: Nairobi Wikipedia Page

Nairobi[b] (abbreviated as NBO) is the capital and largest city of Kenya, located in the south-central part of the country. As of 2024, it has a population of 4.8 million and a metropolitan population of 5.7 million,[7] making it the 11th most populous city in Africa. It is the major financial and economic hub of East Africa, hosting numerous multinational companies and regional organizations, including the United Nations Office at Nairobi. Nicknamed the “Green City in the Sun,” Nairobi is uniquely notable for being the only capital city in the world that hosts a national park within its boundaries, and its name originates from the Maasai phrase Enkare Nyirobi, meaning “place of cool waters."

Nairobi in 1899

search term: public services Wikipedia Page

A public service or service of general (economic) interest is any service intended to address the needs of aggregate members of a community,[1][2] whether provided directly by a public sector agency, via public financing available to private businesses or voluntary organisations, or by private businesses subject to government regulation. Some public services are provided on behalf of a government's residents or in the interest of its citizens. The term is associated with a social consensus (usually expressed through democratic elections) that certain services should be available to all, regardless of income, physical ability or mental acuity. Examples of such services include the fire services, police, air force, paramedics and public service broadcasting.

Tbilisi Public Service Hall Building, Tbilisi, Georgia

search term: international agreements Wikipedia Page

A treaty is a recorded international agreement between sovereign states or other subjects of international law (including international organizations) that is governed by international law.[1] A treaty may also be known as an international agreement, protocol, covenant, convention, pact, or exchange of letters, among other terms; however, only documents that are legally binding on the parties are considered treaties under international law.[2] Treaties may be bilateral (between two countries) or multilateral (involving more than two countries).

The Egyptian–Hittite peace treaty, on display at the Istanbul Archaeology Museum, was for a long time believed to be the earliest example of any written international agreement of any kind.

search term: built environment Wikipedia Page

The term built environment refers to human-made conditions and is often used in architecture, landscape architecture, urban planning, public health, sociology, and anthropology, among others.[1][2][3][4][5][6] These curated spaces provide the setting for human activity and were created to fulfill human desires and needs.[7] The term can refer to a plethora of components including the traditionally associated buildings, cities, public infrastructure, transportation, open space, as well as more conceptual components like farmlands, dammed rivers, wildlife management, and even domesticated animals.[7]

Part of the built environment: suburban tract housing in Colorado Springs, Colorado

search term: embankments Wikipedia Page

Embankment may refer to:

search term: surface water flooding Wikipedia Page

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search term: urban water scarcity Wikipedia Page

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search term: urban migration Wikipedia Page

Urbanization (or urbanisation in British English) is the population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It can also mean population growth in urban areas instead of rural ones.[1] It is predominantly the process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more people begin to live and work in central areas.[2]

Global urbanization map showing the percentage of urbanization and the biggest global population centres per country in 2018, based on UN estimates.

search term: infrastructure networks Wikipedia Page

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search term: transport infrastructure Wikipedia Page

Transport (in British English) or transportation (in American English) is the intentional movement of humans, animals, and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, land (rail and road), water, cable, pipelines, and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. Transport enables human trade, which is essential for the development of civilizations.

Various modes of transport in Manchester, England

search term: ICT infrastructure Wikipedia Page

ITIL (previously and also known as Information Technology Infrastructure Library) is a framework with a set of practices (previously processes) for IT activities such as IT service management (ITSM) and IT asset management (ITAM) that focus on aligning IT services with the needs of the business.[1]

search term: projected urbanisation patterns Wikipedia Page

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search term: building design Wikipedia Page

Building design, also called architectural design, refers to the broadly based architectural, engineering and technical applications to the design of buildings. All building projects require the services of a building designer, typically a licensed architect. Smaller, less complicated projects often do not require a licensed professional, and the design of such projects is often undertaken by building designers, draftspersons, interior designers (for interior fit-outs or renovations), or contractors. Larger, more complex building projects require the services of many professionals trained in specialist disciplines, usually coordinated by an architect.

search term: historic buildings Wikipedia Page

This list is of heritage registers, inventories of cultural properties, natural and human-made, tangible and intangible, movable and immovable, that are deemed to be of sufficient heritage value to be separately identified and recorded. In many instances the pages linked below have as their primary focus the registered assets rather than the registers themselves. Where a particular article or set of articles on a foreign-language Wikipedia provides fuller coverage, a link is provided.

search term: businesses Wikipedia Page

Business is the practice of making one's living or making money by producing or buying and selling products (such as goods and services).[1][2][3][4] It is also "any activity or enterprise entered into for profit."[5]

Small business vendors at a public market

search term: urban climate governance Wikipedia Page

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search term: transnational municipal networks Wikipedia Page

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search term: European Environment Agency Wikipedia Page

The European Environment Agency (EEA) is the agency of the European Union (EU) which provides independent information on the environment in climate policy, biodiversity conservation and other environmental goals set by the country.

search term: community organisations Wikipedia Page

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search term: Urban adaptation Wikipedia Page

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search term: Social learning Wikipedia Page

Social learning may refer to:

search term: ACCCRN Wikipedia Page

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search term: urban green spaces Wikipedia Page

In land-use planning, urban green spaces are open-space areas reserved for parks and other "green spaces." These include plant life, water features – also known as blue spaces – and other kinds of natural environments.[1] Most urban open spaces are green spaces, though some may consist of other types of open areas. The landscape of urban open spaces can range from playing fields and other highly maintained environments to more natural landscapes that appear less managed.

Benjakitti Park in Bangkok

search term: Habitat International Wikipedia Page

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search term: statista Wikipedia Page

Statista (styled in all lower case) is a German online platform that specializes in data gathering and visualization. In addition to publicly available third-party data, Statista also provides exclusive data via the platform, which is collected through its team's surveys and analysis.

search term: urban planning Wikipedia Page

Urban planning (also called city planning or town planning in some contexts) is the process of developing and designing land use and the built environment, including air, water, and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas, such as transportation, communications, and distribution networks, and their accessibility.[1] Traditionally, urban planning followed a top-down approach in master planning the physical layout of human settlements.[2] The primary concern was the public welfare,[1][2] which included considerations of efficiency, sanitation, protection and use of the environment,[1] as well as taking account of effects of the master plans on the social and economic activities.[3] Over time, urban planning has adopted a focus on the social and environmental "bottom lines" that focuses on using planning as a tool to improve the health and well-being of people and maintain sustainability standards. In the early 21st century, urban planning experts such as Jane Jacobs called on urban planners to take resident experiences and needs more into consideration.

Partizánske in Slovakia – an example of a typical planned European industrial town founded in 1938 together with a shoemaking factory in which practically all adult inhabitants of the city were employed

search term: urban population Wikipedia Page

An urban area[a] is a human settlement with a high population density and an infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas originate through urbanization, and researchers categorize them as cities, towns, conurbations or suburbs. In urbanism, the term "urban area" contrasts to rural areas such as villages and hamlets; in urban sociology or urban anthropology, it often contrasts with natural environment.

Skyline of Seoul at night

search term: cities Wikipedia Page

A city is a human settlement of a substantial size. The term "city" has different meanings around the world and in some places the settlement can be very small. Even where the term is limited to larger settlements, there is no universally agreed definition of the lower boundary for their size.[1][2] In a narrower sense, a city can be defined as a permanent and densely populated place with administratively defined boundaries whose members work primarily on non-agricultural tasks.[3] Cities generally have extensive systems for housing, transportation, sanitation, utilities, land use, production of goods, and communication. Their density facilitates interaction between people, government organizations, and businesses, sometimes benefiting different parties in the process, such as improving the efficiency of goods and service distribution.

Palitana is a religiously significant city in Gujarat, India.[12]

search term: social learning Wikipedia Page

Social learning may refer to:

search term: urban adaptation Wikipedia Page

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search term: urban areas Wikipedia Page

An urban area[a] is a human settlement with a high population density and an infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas originate through urbanization, and researchers categorize them as cities, towns, conurbations or suburbs. In urbanism, the term "urban area" contrasts to rural areas such as villages and hamlets; in urban sociology or urban anthropology, it often contrasts with natural environment.

Skyline of Seoul at night

search term: corruption Wikipedia Page

Corruption is a form of dishonesty or a criminal offense that is undertaken by a person or an organization that is entrusted in a position of authority to acquire illicit benefits or abuse power for one's gain. Corruption may involve activities like bribery, influence peddling, embezzlement, and fraud as well as practices that are legal in many countries, such as lobbying.[1] Political corruption occurs when an office-holder or other governmental employee acts in an official capacity for personal gain.

A map depicting the Corruption Perceptions Index in the world in 2023; a higher score indicates lower levels of corruption.
100 – 90
89 – 80
79 – 70
69 – 60
59 – 50
49 – 40
39 – 30
29 – 20
19 – 10
9 – 0
No data

search term: informal settlements Wikipedia Page

Informal housing or informal settlement can include any form of housing, shelter, or settlement (or lack thereof) which is illegal, falls outside of government control or regulation, or is not afforded protection by the state.[1] As such, the informal housing industry is part of the informal sector.[2]

Informal housing settlement in Soweto, South Africa

search term: land subsidence Wikipedia Page

Subsidence is a general term for downward vertical movement of the Earth's surface, which can be caused by both natural processes and human activities. Subsidence involves little or no horizontal movement,[1][2] which distinguishes it from slope movement.[3]

Subsided house, called The Crooked House, the result of 19th-century mining subsidence in Staffordshire, England

search term: urban heat island effect Wikipedia Page

Urban areas usually experience the urban heat island (UHI) effect; that is, they are significantly warmer than surrounding rural areas. The temperature difference is usually larger at night than during the day,[1] and is most apparent when winds are weak, under block conditions, noticeably during the summer and winter. The main cause of the UHI effect is from the modification of land surfaces, while waste heat generated by energy usage is a secondary contributor.[2][3][4] Urban areas occupy about 0.5% of the Earth's land surface but host more than half of the world's population.[5] As a population center grows, it tends to expand its area and increase its average temperature. The term heat island is also used; the term can be used to refer to any area that is relatively hotter than the surrounding, but generally refers to human-disturbed areas.[6]

Example of dense urban living without green spaces which leads to a pronounced urban heat island effect (Milan, Italy)

search term: New York City Wikipedia Page

New York, often called New York City (NYC),[b] is the most populous city in the United States. It is located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive with its respective county. The city is the geographical and demographic center of both the Northeast megalopolis and the New York metropolitan area, the largest metropolitan area in the United States by both population and urban area. New York is a global center of finance[13] and commerce, culture, technology,[14] entertainment and media, academics and scientific output,[15] the arts and fashion, and, as home to the headquarters of the United Nations, international diplomacy.[16][17][18][19][20]

The Battle of Long Island, one of the largest battles of the American Revolutionary War, which took place in Brooklyn on August 27, 1776

search term: transformative adaptation Wikipedia Page

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search term: climate change risk Wikipedia Page

Climate risk is the potential for problems for societies or ecosystems from the impacts of climate change.[2] The assessment of climate risk is based on formal analysis of the consequences, likelihoods and responses to these impacts. Societal constraints can also shape adaptation options.[3][4] There are different values and preferences around risk, resulting in differences of risk perception.[5]: 149

The risk equation shows that climate risk is a product of hazard, exposure, and climate change vulnerability (where 'x' represents interaction between the components).[1]

search term: flood events Wikipedia Page

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search term: urbanization Wikipedia Page

Urbanization (or urbanisation in British English) is the population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It can also mean population growth in urban areas instead of rural ones.[1] It is predominantly the process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more people begin to live and work in central areas.[2]

Global urbanization map showing the percentage of urbanization and the biggest global population centres per country in 2018, based on UN estimates.

search term: urban resilience Wikipedia Page

Urban resilience describes the ability of a city or urban community to withstand, recover from or adapt to man-made and natural disasters.[1][2] This concept includes the resilience of physical infrastructure and social, health, and economic systems.

Tuned mass damper in Taipei 101, the world's eleventh tallest skyscraper.

search term: migrants Wikipedia Page

Migrant is a term that may refer to:

search term: climate mitigation Wikipedia Page

Climate change mitigation (or decarbonisation) is action to limit the greenhouse gases in the atmosphere that cause climate change. Climate change mitigation actions include conserving energy and replacing fossil fuels with clean energy sources. Secondary mitigation strategies include changes to land use and removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.[1][2] Current climate change mitigation policies are insufficient as they would still result in global warming of about 2.7 °C by 2100,[3] significantly above the 2015 Paris Agreement's[4] goal of limiting global warming to below 2 °C.[5][6]

Global greenhouse gas emission scenarios, based on policies and pledges as of 11/21

search term: Urban Climate Change Research Network Wikipedia Page

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search term: community resilience Wikipedia Page

Community resilience is the sustained ability of a community to use available resources (energy, communication, transportation, food, etc.) to respond to, withstand, and recover from adverse situations (e.g. economic collapse to global catastrophic risks).[1] This allows for the adaptation and growth of a community after disaster strikes.[2] Communities that are resilient are able to minimize any disaster, making the return to normal life as effortless as possible. By implementing a community resilience plan, a community can come together and overcome any disaster, while rebuilding physically and economically.[3][4]

search term: human settlements Wikipedia Page

In geography, statistics and archaeology, a settlement, locality or populated place is a community of people living in a particular place. The complexity of a settlement can range from a minuscule number of dwellings grouped together to the largest of cities with surrounding urbanized areas. Settlements include homesteads, hamlets, villages, towns and cities. A settlement may have known historical properties such as the date or era in which it was first settled or first settled by particular people. A number of factors like war, erosion, and the fall of great empires can result in the formation of abandoned settlements which provides relics for archaeological studies.

The small town of Flora, Oregon, US, is unincorporated, but considered a populated place.

search term: Water Policy Wikipedia Page

Water politics, sometimes called hydropolitics, is politics affected by the availability of water and water resources, a necessity for all life forms and human development.

People waiting in line to gather water during the Siege of Sarajevo

search term: security Wikipedia Page

Security is protection from, or resilience against, potential harm (or other unwanted coercion). Beneficiaries (technically referents) of security may be persons and social groups, objects and institutions, ecosystems, or any other entity or phenomenon vulnerable to unwanted change.

Refugees fleeing war and insecurity in Iraq and Syria arrive at Lesbos Island, supported by Spanish volunteers, 2015

search term: investment Wikipedia Page

Investment is traditionally defined as the "commitment of resources into something expected to gain value over time".[1] If an investment involves money, then it can be defined as a "commitment of money to receive more money later". From a broader viewpoint, an investment can be defined as "to tailor the pattern of expenditure and receipt of resources to optimise the desirable patterns of these flows". When expenditures and receipts are defined in terms of money, then the net monetary receipt in a time period is termed cash flow, while money received in a series of several time periods is termed cash flow stream.

Dollar cost averaging: If an individual invested $500 per month into the stock market for 40 years at a 10% annual return rate, they would have an ending balance of over $2.5 million.

search term: accountability Wikipedia Page

In ethics and governance, accountability is equated with answerability, culpability, liability, and the expectation of account-giving.[1]

search term: urbanisation Wikipedia Page

Urbanization (or urbanisation in British English) is the population shift from rural to urban areas, the corresponding decrease in the proportion of people living in rural areas, and the ways in which societies adapt to this change. It can also mean population growth in urban areas instead of rural ones.[1] It is predominantly the process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more people begin to live and work in central areas.[2]

Global urbanization map showing the percentage of urbanization and the biggest global population centres per country in 2018, based on UN estimates.

search term: climate adaptation Wikipedia Page

Climate change adaptation is the process of adjusting to the effects of climate change, both current and anticipated. Adaptation aims to moderate or avoid harm for people, and is usually done alongside climate change mitigation. It also aims to exploit opportunities. Adaptation can involve interventions to help natural systems cope with changes.[1]

Wetland restoration in Australia

search term: air pollutants Wikipedia Page

Air pollution is the presence of substances in the air that are harmful to humans, other living beings or the environment. Pollutants can be gases, like ozone or nitrogen oxides, or small particles like soot and dust. Both outdoor and indoor air can be polluted.

Demolition of the cooling towers of a power station, Athlone, Cape Town, South Africa, 2010

search term: resettlement Wikipedia Page

Resettlement may refer to:

search term: infrastructure Wikipedia Page

Infrastructure is the set of facilities and systems that serve a country, city, or other area,[1] and encompasses the services and facilities necessary for its economy, households and firms to function.[2] Infrastructure is composed of public and private physical structures such as roads, railways, bridges, airports, public transit systems, tunnels, water supply, sewers, electrical grids, and telecommunications (including Internet connectivity and broadband access). In general, infrastructure has been defined as "the physical components of interrelated systems providing commodities and services essential to enable, sustain, or enhance societal living conditions" and maintain the surrounding environment.[3]

San Francisco Ferry Building, The Embarcadero, and the Bay Bridge at night, all examples of infrastructure

search term: race Wikipedia Page

Race, RACE or The Race may refer to:

search term: informality Wikipedia Page

Formal, formality, informal or informality imply the complying with, or not complying with, some set of requirements (forms, in Ancient Greek). They may refer to:

search term: Sustainability Wikipedia Page

Sustainability (from the latin sustinere - hold up, hold upright; furnish with means of support; bear, undergo, endure) is the ability to continue over a long period of time.[1][2] In modern usage it generally refers to a state in which the environment, economy, and society will continue to exist over a long period of time.[3] Many definitions emphasize the environmental dimension.[4][5] This can include addressing key environmental problems, such as climate change and biodiversity loss. The idea of sustainability can guide decisions at the global, national, organizational, and individual levels.[6] A related concept is that of sustainable development, and the terms are often used to mean the same thing.[7] UNESCO distinguishes the two like this: "Sustainability is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while sustainable development refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it."[8]

Three visual representations of sustainability and its three dimensions. The left image shows sustainability as three intersecting circles. The top right is a nested approach where social and economic sustainability are contained within environmental sustainability. The bottom right shows pillars with the different components holding up sustainability.

search term: private sector Wikipedia Page

The private sector is the part of the economy which is owned by private groups, usually as a means of establishment for profit or non profit, rather than being owned by the government.

search term: England Wikipedia Page

– in Europe (green & dark grey)
– in the United Kingdom (green)

search term: water resource management Wikipedia Page

Water resources are natural resources of water that are potentially useful for humans, for example as a source of drinking water supply or irrigation water. These resources can be either freshwater from natural sources, or water produced artificially from other sources, such as from reclaimed water (wastewater) or desalinated water (seawater). 97% of the water on Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly over two-thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps.[2] The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air.[3] Natural sources of fresh water include frozen water, groundwater, surface water, and under river flow. People use water resources for agricultural, household, and industrial activities.

Lake Chungará and Parinacota volcano in northern Chile

search term: planning Wikipedia Page

Planning is the process of thinking regarding the activities required to achieve a desired goal. Planning is based on foresight, the fundamental capacity for mental time travel. Some researchers regard the evolution of forethought - the capacity to think ahead - as a prime mover in human evolution.[1] Planning is a fundamental property of intelligent behavior.[citation needed] It involves the use of logic and imagination to visualize not only a desired result, but the steps necessary to achieve that result.

The striatum; part of the basal ganglia; neural pathways between the striatum and the frontal lobe have been implicated in planning function.

search term: Global South Wikipedia Page

Global North and Global South are terms that denote a method of grouping countries based on their defining characteristics with regard to socioeconomics and politics. According to UN Trade and Development (UNCTAD), the Global South broadly comprises Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, Asia (excluding Israel, Japan, and South Korea), and Oceania (excluding Australia and New Zealand).[1][3][a] Most of the Global South's countries are commonly identified as lacking in their standard of living, which includes having lower incomes, high levels of poverty, high population growth rates, inadequate housing, limited educational opportunities, and deficient health systems, among other issues.[b] Additionally, these countries' cities are characterized by their poor infrastructure.[c] Opposite to the Global South is the Global North, which the UNCTAD describes as broadly comprising Northern America and Europe, Israel, Japan, South Korea, Australia, and New Zealand.[1][3][a] Consequently the two groups do not correspond to the Northern Hemisphere or the Southern Hemisphere, as many of the Global South's countries are geographically located in the north and vice-versa.[4]

Economic classification of the world's countries and territories by the UNCTAD in 2023: the Global North (i.e., developed countries) is highlighted in blue and the Global South (i.e., developing countries and least developed countries) is highlighted in red.[1][2][3]

search term: flood risk Wikipedia Page

A flood is an overflow of water (or rarely other fluids) that submerges land that is usually dry.[1] In the sense of "flowing water", the word may also be applied to the inflow of the tide. Floods are of significant concern in agriculture, civil engineering and public health. Human changes to the environment often increase the intensity and frequency of flooding. Examples for human changes are land use changes such as deforestation and removal of wetlands, changes in waterway course or flood controls such as with levees. Global environmental issues also influence causes of floods, namely climate change which causes an intensification of the water cycle and sea level rise.[2]: 1517 For example, climate change makes extreme weather events more frequent and stronger.[3] This leads to more intense floods and increased flood risk.[4][5]

Urban flooding in a street in Morpeth, England, 2008

search term: climate governance Wikipedia Page

Climate governance is the diplomacy, mechanisms and response measures "aimed at steering social systems towards preventing, mitigating or adapting to the risks posed by climate change".[1] A definitive interpretation is complicated by the wide range of political and social science traditions (including comparative politics, political economy and multilevel governance) that are engaged in conceiving and analysing climate governance at different levels and across different arenas. In academia, climate governance has become the concern of geographers, anthropologists, economists and business studies scholars.[2]

search term: green spaces Wikipedia Page

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search term: 2030 Agenda Wikipedia Page

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by all United Nations (UN) members in 2015, created 17 world Sustainable Development Goals (abbr. SDGs). The aim of these global goals is "peace and prosperity for people and the planet"[1][2] – while tackling climate change and working to preserve oceans and forests. The SDGs highlight the connections between the environmental, social and economic aspects of sustainable development. Sustainability is at the center of the SDGs, as the term sustainable development implies.

search term: green infrastructure Wikipedia Page

Green infrastructure or blue-green infrastructure refers to a network that provides the "ingredients" for solving urban and climatic challenges by building with nature.[1] The main components of this approach include stormwater management, climate adaptation, the reduction of heat stress, increasing biodiversity, food production, better air quality, sustainable energy production, clean water, and healthy soils, as well as more human centered functions, such as increased quality of life through recreation and the provision of shade and shelter in and around towns and cities.[2][3] Green infrastructure also serves to provide an ecological framework for social, economic, and environmental health of the surroundings.[4] More recently scholars and activists have also called for green infrastructure that promotes social inclusion and equity rather than reinforcing pre-existing structures of unequal access to nature-based services.[5]

Runoff from the vicinity flows into an adjacent bioswale

search term: south Asia Wikipedia Page

South Asia is the southern subregion of Asia that is defined in both geographical and ethnic-cultural terms. South Asia, with a population of 2.04 billion, contains a quarter (25%) of the world's population. As commonly conceptualised, the modern states of South Asia include Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, with Afghanistan also often included, which may otherwise be classified as part of Central Asia.[6][7] South Asia borders East Asia to the northeast, Central Asia to the northwest, West Asia to the west and Southeast Asia to the east. Apart from Southeast Asia, Maritime South Asia is the only subregion of Asia that lies partly within the Southern Hemisphere. The British Indian Ocean Territory and two out of 26 atolls of the Maldives in South Asia lie entirely within the Southern Hemisphere. Topographically, it is dominated by the Indian subcontinent and is bounded by the Indian Ocean in the south, and the Himalayas, Karakoram, and Pamir Mountains in the north.[8]

search term: conflict risk Wikipedia Page

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search term: health outcomes Wikipedia Page

The page "Health outcomes" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: population health Wikipedia Page

Population health has been defined as "the health outcomes of a group of individuals, including the distribution of such outcomes within the group".[1] It is an approach to health that aims to improve the health of an entire human population. It has been described as consisting of three components. These are "health outcomes, patterns of health determinants, and policies and interventions".[1]

Income inequality and mortality in 282 metropolitan areas of the United States. Mortality is correlated with both income and inequality.

search term: displacement Wikipedia Page

Displacement may refer to:

search term: health adaptation Wikipedia Page

The page "Health adaptation" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: obesity Wikipedia Page

Obesity is a medical condition, considered by multiple organizations to be a disease,[8][9][10] in which excess body fat has accumulated to such an extent that it can have negative effects on health. People are classified as obese when their body mass index (BMI)—a person's weight divided by the square of the person's height—is over 30 kg/m2; the range 25–30 kg/m2 is defined as overweight.[1] Some East Asian countries use lower values to calculate obesity.[11] Obesity is a major cause of disability and is correlated with various diseases and conditions, particularly cardiovascular diseases, type 2 diabetes, obstructive sleep apnea, certain types of cancer, and osteoarthritis.[2][12][13]

search term: peacebuilding Wikipedia Page

Peacebuilding is an activity that aims to resolve injustice in nonviolent ways and to transform the cultural and structural conditions that generate deadly or destructive conflict. It revolves around developing constructive personal, group, and political relationships across ethnic, religious, class, national, and racial boundaries. The process includes violence prevention; conflict management, resolution, or transformation; and post-conflict reconciliation or trauma healing before, during, and after any given case of violence.[1][2][3]

Human peace sign - symbolically represents a holistic approach to peacebuilding.

search term: indigenous communities Wikipedia Page

There is no generally accepted definition of Indigenous peoples,[a][1][2][3] although in the 21st century the focus has been on self-identification, cultural difference from other groups in a state, a special relationship with their traditional territory, and an experience of subjugation and discrimination under a dominant cultural model.[4]

A Kaqchikel family in the Patzutzun hamlet of Sololá, Guatemala (1993)

search term: civil unrest Wikipedia Page

Civil disorder, also known as civil disturbance, civil unrest, civil strife, or turmoil, are situations when law enforcement and security forces struggle to maintain public order or tranquility.[1][2]

A rioter on top of a Toronto Police Service cruiser in flames during G20 Toronto summit, June 2010

search term: pandemic Wikipedia Page

A pandemic (/pænˈdɛmɪk/ pan-DEM-ik) is an epidemic of an infectious disease that has a sudden increase in cases and spreads across a large region, for instance multiple continents or worldwide, affecting a substantial portion of the human population. Widespread endemic diseases with a stable number of infected individuals such as recurrences of seasonal influenza are generally excluded as they occur simultaneously in large regions of the globe rather than being spread worldwide.

Early in the COVID-19 pandemic, convention centers (pictured here) were deemed to be ideal sites for temporary hospitals, due to their existing infrastructure (electrical, water, sewage).[1] Hotels and dormitories were also considered appropriate because they can use negative pressure technology.[1]

search term: extreme temperatures Wikipedia Page

The list of weather records includes the most extreme occurrences of weather phenomena for various categories. Many weather records are measured under specific conditions—such as surface temperature and wind speed—to keep consistency among measurements around the Earth. Each of these records is understood to be the record value officially observed, as these records may have been exceeded before modern weather instrumentation was invented, or in remote areas without an official weather station. This list does not include remotely sensed observations such as satellite measurements, since those values are not considered official records.[2]

In recent decades, new high temperature records have substantially outpaced new low temperature records on a growing portion of Earth's surface.[1] Comparison shows seasonal variability for record increases.

search term: diabetes Wikipedia Page

Diabetes mellitus, commonly known as diabetes, is a group of common endocrine diseases characterized by sustained high blood sugar levels.[10][11] Diabetes is due to either the pancreas not producing enough of the hormone insulin or the cells of the body becoming unresponsive to insulin's effects.[12] Classic symptoms include the three Ps: polydipsia (excessive thirst), polyuria (excessive urination), polyphagia (excessive hunger), weight loss, and blurred vision. If left untreated, the disease can lead to various health complications, including disorders of the cardiovascular system, eye, kidney, and nerves.[3] Diabetes accounts for approximately 4.2 million deaths every year,[9] with an estimated 1.5 million caused by either untreated or poorly treated diabetes.[10]

search term: BMC Public Health Wikipedia Page

BMC Public Health is a peer-reviewed open-access scientific journal that covers epidemiology of disease and various aspects of public health.[1] The journal was established in 2001 and is published by BioMed Central.

search term: premature deaths Wikipedia Page

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search term: Global Compact Wikipedia Page

Global Compact as used in politics may refer broadly to an international pact or treaty; in more specific cases it may refer to:

search term: health services Wikipedia Page

Health care, or healthcare, is the improvement or maintenance of health via the prevention, diagnosis, treatment, amelioration or cure of disease, illness, injury, and other physical and mental impairments in people. Health care is delivered by health professionals and allied health fields. Medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, midwifery, nursing, optometry, audiology, psychology, occupational therapy, physical therapy, athletic training, and other health professions all constitute health care. The term includes work done in providing primary care, secondary care, tertiary care, and public health.

Global concentrations of health care resources, as depicted by the number of physicians per 10,000 individuals, by country. Data is sourced from a WHO indicator and is from 2017-2023.

search term: Israel Wikipedia Page

Israel,[a] officially the State of Israel,[b] is a country in the Southern Levant region of West Asia. It borders Lebanon to the north, Syria to the northeast, Jordan to the east and Egypt to the southwest. Israel occupies the Palestinian territories of the West Bank in the east and the Gaza Strip in the southwest, as well as the Syrian Golan Heights in the northeast. Israel's western coast lies on the Mediterranean Sea, the southernmost point reaches the Red Sea, and the east includes part of the Dead Sea. Jerusalem is the government seat and proclaimed capital,[22] while Tel Aviv is the country's largest urban area and economic centre.

Tel Megiddo, the ruins of a Canaanite and later Israelite city

search term: Global Burden of Disease Study Wikipedia Page

The Global Burden of Disease Study (GBD) is a comprehensive regional and global research program of disease burden that assesses mortality and disability from major diseases, injuries, and risk factors. GBD is a collaboration of over 12,000 researchers from more than 160 countries.[1] Under principal investigator Christopher J.L. Murray, GBD is based in the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) at the University of Washington and funded by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.[2]

search term: dengue fever Wikipedia Page

Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne disease caused by dengue virus, prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas. Most cases of dengue fever are either asymptomatic or manifest mild symptoms.[8][7] Symptoms typically begin 3 to 14 days after infection. They may include a high fever, headache, vomiting, muscle and joint pains, and a characteristic skin itching and skin rash. Recovery generally takes two to seven days. In a small proportion of cases, the disease develops into severe dengue (previously known as dengue hemorrhagic fever or dengue shock syndrome)[9] with bleeding, low levels of blood platelets, blood plasma leakage, and dangerously low blood pressure.[1][2]

search term: influenza Wikipedia Page

Influenza, commonly known as the flu, is an infectious disease caused by influenza viruses. Symptoms range from mild to severe and often include fever, runny nose, sore throat, muscle pain, headache, coughing, and fatigue. These symptoms begin one to four (typically two) days after exposure to the virus and last for about two to eight days. Diarrhea and vomiting can occur, particularly in children. Influenza may progress to pneumonia from the virus or a subsequent bacterial infection. Other complications include acute respiratory distress syndrome, meningitis, encephalitis, and worsening of pre-existing health problems such as asthma and cardiovascular disease.

Symptoms of influenza,[2][3] with fever and cough the most common symptoms[4]

search term: sustainable food systems Wikipedia Page

A sustainable food system is a type of food system that provides healthy food to people and creates sustainable environmental, economic, and social systems that surround food. Sustainable food systems start with the development of sustainable agricultural practices, development of more sustainable food distribution systems, creation of sustainable diets, and reduction of food waste throughout the system. Sustainable food systems have been argued to be central to many[1] or all[2] 17 Sustainable Development Goals.[3]

The large environmental impact of agriculture – such as its greenhouse gas emissions, soil degradation, deforestation and pollinator decline effects – make the food system a critical set of processes that need to be addressed for climate change mitigation and a stable healthy environment.

search term: diarrhoeal diseases Wikipedia Page

Diarrhea (American English), also spelled diarrhoea or diarrhœa (British English), is the condition of having at least three loose, liquid, or watery bowel movements in a day.[2] It often lasts for a few days and can result in dehydration due to fluid loss.[2] Signs of dehydration often begin with loss of the normal stretchiness of the skin and irritable behaviour.[2] This can progress to decreased urination, loss of skin color, a fast heart rate, and a decrease in responsiveness as it becomes more severe.[2] Loose but non-watery stools in babies who are exclusively breastfed, however, are normal.[2]

search term: eastern Africa Wikipedia Page

East Africa, also known as Eastern Africa or the East of Africa, is a region at the eastern edge of the African continent, distinguished by its unique geographical, historical, and cultural landscape. Defined in varying scopes, the region is recognized in the United Nations Statistics Division scheme as encompassing 18 sovereign states and 4 territories. It includes the Horn of Africa to the North and Southeastern Africa to the south.[1]

search term: One Health Wikipedia Page

One Health is an approach calling for "the collaborative efforts of multiple disciplines working locally, nationally, and globally, to attain optimal health for people, animals and our environment", as defined by the One Health Initiative Task Force (OHITF).[2] It developed in response to evidence of the spreading of zoonotic diseases between species and increasing awareness of "the interdependence of human and animal health and ecological change".[3]: 205[4] In this viewpoint, public health is no longer seen in purely human terms.[5][6] Due to a shared environment and highly conserved physiology, animals and humans not only suffer from the same zoonotic diseases but can also be treated by either structurally related or identical drugs. For this reason, special care must be taken to avoid unnecessary or over-treatment of zoonotic diseases, particularly in the context of drug resistance in infectious microbes.[7]

One Health is at the intersection of human health, animal health, and environmental health.[1]

search term: migration patterns Wikipedia Page

Animal migration is the relatively long-distance movement of individual animals, usually on a seasonal basis. It is the most common form of migration in ecology. It is found in all major animal groups, including birds, mammals, fish, reptiles, amphibians, insects, and crustaceans. The cause of migration may be local climate, local availability of food, the season of the year or for mating.

Goose migration is an iconic migration phenomenon in parts of the Northern Hemisphere[1]

search term: receiving communities Wikipedia Page

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search term: UHC Wikipedia Page

search term: wellbeing Wikipedia Page

Well-being is what is ultimately good for a person. Also called "welfare" and "quality of life", it is a measure of how well life is going for someone. It is a central goal of many individual and societal endeavors.

Positive interpersonal relationships contribute to well-being.

search term: mental illness Wikipedia Page

A mental disorder, also referred to as a mental illness,[6] a mental health condition,[7] or a psychiatric disability,[2] is a behavioral or mental pattern that causes significant distress or impairment of personal functioning.[8] A mental disorder is also characterized by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotional regulation, or behavior, often in a social context.[9][10] Such disturbances may occur as single episodes, may be persistent, or may be relapsing–remitting. There are many different types of mental disorders, with signs and symptoms that vary widely between specific disorders.[10][11] A mental disorder is one aspect of mental health.

The prevalence of mental illness is higher in more economically unequal countries.

search term: health impacts Wikipedia Page

Health effects (or health impacts) are changes in health resulting from exposure to a source. Health effects are an important consideration in many areas, such as hygiene, pollution studies, occupational safety and health, ([nutrition]) and health sciences in general. Some of the major environmental sources of health effects are air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, noise pollution and over-illumination.[citation needed]

search term: happiness Wikipedia Page

Happiness is a complex and multifaceted emotion that encompasses a range of positive feelings, from contentment to intense joy. It is often associated with positive life experiences, such as achieving goals, spending time with loved ones, or engaging in enjoyable activities. However, happiness can also arise spontaneously, without any apparent external cause.

A 93-year-old man from Pichilemu, Chile; his smile and facial expression may indicate happiness

search term: immobility Wikipedia Page

Immobilization may refer to:

search term: urban settings Wikipedia Page

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search term: renal syndrome Wikipedia Page

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search term: salmonellosis Wikipedia Page

Salmonellosis is a symptomatic infection caused by bacteria of the Salmonella type.[1] It is the most common disease to be known as food poisoning (though the name refers to food-borne illness in general). These are defined as diseases, usually either infectious or toxic in nature, caused by agents that enter the body through the ingestion of food. In humans, the most common symptoms are diarrhea, fever, abdominal cramps, and vomiting.[1] Symptoms typically occur between 12 hours and 36 hours after exposure, and last from two to seven days.[4] Occasionally more significant disease can result in dehydration.[4] The old, young, and others with a weakened immune system are more likely to develop severe disease.[1] Specific types of Salmonella can result in typhoid fever or paratyphoid fever.[1][3] Typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever are specific types of salmonellosis, known collectively as enteric fever,[6] and are, respectively, caused by salmonella typhi and paratyphi bacteria, which are only found in humans.[7] Most commonly, salmonellosis cases arise from salmonella bacteria from animals,[8] and chicken is a major source for these infections.[9]

search term: Cryptosporidium Wikipedia Page

Cryptosporidium, sometimes called crypto, is an apicomplexan genus of alveolates which are parasites that can cause a respiratory and gastrointestinal illness (cryptosporidiosis) that primarily involves watery diarrhea (intestinal cryptosporidiosis), sometimes with a persistent cough (respiratory cryptosporidiosis).[1][2]

search term: injuries Wikipedia Page

Injury is physiological damage to the living tissue of any organism, whether in humans, in other animals, or in plants.

A crabeater seal injured by a predator

search term: depression Wikipedia Page

Depression may refer to:

search term: PTSD Wikipedia Page

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)[b] is a mental disorder that develops from experiencing a traumatic event, such as sexual assault, domestic violence, child abuse, warfare and its associated traumas, natural disaster, bereavement, traffic collision, or other threats on a person's life or well-being.[1][7][8] Symptoms may include disturbing thoughts, feelings, or dreams related to the events, mental or physical distress to trauma-related cues, attempts to avoid trauma-related cues, alterations in the way a person thinks and feels, and an increase in the fight-or-flight response.[1][4][9] These symptoms last for more than a month after the event and can include triggers such as misophonia.[1] Young children are less likely to show distress, but instead may express their memories through play.[10][1]

Service members use art to relieve PTSD symptoms.

search term: environmental peacebuilding Wikipedia Page

Environmental peacebuilding (frequently termed environmental peacemaking) examines and advocates environmental protection and cooperation as a factor in creating more peaceful relations. Peacebuilding is both the theory and practice of identifying the conditions that can lead to a sustainable peace between past, current or potential future adversaries. At the most basic level, warfare devastates ecosystems and the livelihoods of those who depend on natural resources, and the anarchy of conflict situations leads to the uncontrolled, destructive exploitation of natural resources. Preventing these impacts allows for an easier movement to a sustainable peace.[1] From a more positive perspective, environmental cooperation can be one of the places where hostile parties can sustain a dialogue, and sustainable development is a prerequisite for a sustainable peace.[2][3]

search term: involuntary migration Wikipedia Page

Forced displacement (also forced migration or forced relocation) is an involuntary or coerced movement of a person or people away from their home or home region. The UNHCR defines "forced displacement" as follows: displaced "as a result of persecution, conflict, generalized violence or human rights violations".[2]

Syrian and Iraqi migrants arriving in Lesbos, Greece, in 2015 seeking refuge.

search term: violent conflict Wikipedia Page

War is an armed conflict[a] between the armed forces of states, or between governmental forces and armed groups that are organized under a certain command structure and have the capacity to sustain military operations, or between such organized groups.[2]

The percentages of men killed in war in eight tribal societies, and Europe and the U.S. in the 20th century. (Lawrence H. Keeley, archeologist)

search term: adolescents Wikipedia Page

Adolescence (from Latin adolescere 'to mature') is a transitional stage of human physical and psychological development that generally occurs during the period from puberty to adulthood (typically corresponding to the age of majority).[1][2] Adolescence is usually associated with the teenage years,[3][4] but its physical, psychological or cultural expressions may begin earlier or end later. Puberty typically begins during preadolescence, particularly in females.[4][5] Physical growth (particularly in males) and cognitive development can extend past the teens. Age provides only a rough marker of adolescence, and scholars have not agreed upon a precise definition. Some definitions start as early as 10 and end as late as 30.[6][7][8] The World Health Organization definition officially designates adolescence as the phase of life from ages 10 to 19.[9]

Two adolescents listening to music using earphones

search term: involuntary displacement Wikipedia Page

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search term: causal pathways Wikipedia Page

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search term: older adults Wikipedia Page

Old age is the range of ages for people nearing and surpassing life expectancy. People of old age are called old people, the elderly, elders, senior citizens, seniors, or older adults.[1] Old age is not a definite biological stage: the chronological age denoted as "old age" varies culturally and historically.[2] Some disciplines and domains focus on the aging and the aged, such as the organic processes of aging (senescence),[3] medical studies of the aging process (gerontology),[4] diseases that afflict older adults (geriatrics),[5] technology to support the aging society (gerontechnology), and leisure and sport activities adapted to older people (such as senior sport).

A 93-year-old man from Pichilemu, Chile

search term: risk factor Wikipedia Page

In epidemiology, a risk factor or determinant is a variable associated with an increased risk of disease or infection.[1]: 38

search term: pregnancy Wikipedia Page

Pregnancy is the time during which one or more offspring gestates inside a woman's uterus.[4][10] A multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins.[11]

search term: infectious disease Wikipedia Page

An infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce.[1] An infectious disease, also known as a transmissible disease or communicable disease, is an illness resulting from an infection.

search term: indigenous health Wikipedia Page

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search term: climatic factors Wikipedia Page

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search term: dengue incidence Wikipedia Page

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search term: schistosomiasis Wikipedia Page

Schistosomiasis, also known as snail fever, bilharzia, and Katayama fever[1][2][9] is a neglected tropical disease caused by parasitic flatworms called schistosomes.[5] It affects both humans and animals. It affects the urinary tract or the intestines.[5] Symptoms include abdominal pain, diarrhea, bloody stool, or blood in the urine.[5] Those who have been infected for a long time may experience liver damage, kidney failure, infertility, or bladder cancer.[5] In children, schistosomiasis may cause poor growth and learning difficulties.[5] Schistosomiasis belongs to the group of helminth infections.[10]

search term: WBDs Wikipedia Page

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search term: European Food Safety Authority Wikipedia Page

The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) is the agency of the European Union (EU) that provides independent scientific advice and communicates on existing and emerging risks associated with the food chain.[1][2] EFSA was established in February 2002 in Parma, Italy. It had a yearly budget of €118.6 million, and a total staff of 542 as of 2021.[3]

search term: asthma Wikipedia Page

Asthma is a common long-term inflammatory disease of the bronchioles of the lungs.[4] It is characterized by variable and recurring symptoms, reversible airflow obstruction, and easily triggered bronchospasms.[9][10] Symptoms include episodes of wheezing, coughing, chest tightness, and shortness of breath.[3] A sudden worsening of asthma symptoms sometimes called an 'asthma attack' or an 'asthma exacerbation' can occur when allergens, pollen, dust, or other particles, are inhaled into the lungs, causing the bronchioles to constrict and produce mucus, which then restricts oxygen flow to the alveoli. These may occur a few times a day or a few times per week.[4] Depending on the person, asthma symptoms may become worse at night or with exercise.[4]

search term: CVD Wikipedia Page

search term: cognitive function Wikipedia Page

Cognitive skills[a] are skills of the mind, as opposed to other types of skills such as motor skills, social skills or life skills. Cognitive skills include literacy, self-reflection, logical reasoning, abstract thinking, critical thinking, introspection and mental arithmetic. Cognitive skills vary in processing complexity, and can range from more fundamental processes such as perception and various memory functions, to more sophisticated processes such as decision making, problem solving and metacognition.[1]

search term: climate migration Wikipedia Page

Climate migration is a subset of climate-related mobility that refers to movement driven by the impact of sudden or gradual climate-exacerbated disasters, such as "abnormally heavy rainfalls, prolonged droughts, desertification, environmental degradation, or sea-level rise and cyclones".[1] Gradual shifts in the environment tend to impact more people than sudden disasters.[2] The majority of climate migrants move internally within their own countries, though a smaller number of climate-displaced people also move across national borders.[3]

An activist holding a sign "Climate change = more climate refugees" at the Melbourne Global climate strike on Sep 20, 2019

search term: occupational health Wikipedia Page

Occupational safety and health (OSH) or occupational health and safety (OHS) is a multidisciplinary field concerned with the safety, health, and welfare of people at work (i.e., while performing duties required by one's occupation). OSH is related to the fields of occupational medicine and occupational hygiene[a] and aligns with workplace health promotion initiatives. OSH also protects all the general public who may be affected by the occupational environment.[4]

Bernardino Ramazzini

search term: Public Wikipedia Page

In public relations and communication science, publics are groups of individual people, and the public (a.k.a. the general public) is the totality of such groupings.[1][2] This is a different concept to the sociological concept of the Öffentlichkeit or public sphere.[1]

The diverse public is symbolized in this sculpture situated in Montreal, Canada named "La Foule illuminée [fr]".

search term: climate change policy Wikipedia Page

The politics of climate change results from different perspectives on how to respond to climate change. Global warming is driven largely by the emissions of greenhouse gases due to human activity, especially the burning of fossil fuels,[1] certain industries like cement and steel production, and land use for agriculture and forestry. Since the Industrial Revolution, fossil fuels have provided the main source of energy for economic and technological development. The centrality of fossil fuels and other carbon-intensive industries has resulted in much resistance to climate policy, despite widespread scientific consensus that such policy is necessary.

Heads of delegations at the 2015 United Nations Paris conference

search term: pregnant women Wikipedia Page

Pregnancy is the time during which one or more offspring gestates inside a woman's uterus.[4][10] A multiple pregnancy involves more than one offspring, such as with twins.[11]

search term: West Nile fever Wikipedia Page

West Nile fever is an infection by the West Nile virus, which is typically spread by mosquitoes.[1] In about 80% of infections people have few or no symptoms.[3] About 20% of people develop a fever, headache, vomiting, or a rash.[1] In less than 1% of people, encephalitis or meningitis occurs, with associated neck stiffness, confusion, or seizures.[1] Recovery may take weeks to months.[1] The risk of death among those in whom the nervous system is affected is about 10%.[1]

search term: response systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: sustainable peace Wikipedia Page

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search term: global health Wikipedia Page

Global health is the health of populations in a worldwide context;[1] it has been defined as "the area of study, research, and practice that places a priority on improving health and achieving equity in health for all people worldwide".[2] Problems that transcend national borders or have a global political and economic impact are often emphasized.[3] Thus, global health is about worldwide health improvement (including mental health), reduction of disparities, and protection against global threats that disregard national borders,[4][5] including the most common causes of human death and years of life lost from a global perspective.

The World Health Organization in Geneva, Switzerland

search term: NCDs Wikipedia Page

search term: dehydration Wikipedia Page

In physiology, dehydration is a lack of total body water that disrupts metabolic processes.[3] It occurs when free water loss exceeds intake, often resulting from excessive sweating, health conditions, or inadequate consumption of water. Mild dehydration can also be caused by immersion diuresis, which may increase risk of decompression sickness in divers.

search term: indigenous food sovereignty Wikipedia Page

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search term: gardening Wikipedia Page

Gardening is the process of growing plants for their vegetables, fruits, flowers, herbs, and appearances within a designated space.[1] Gardens fulfill a wide assortment of purposes, notably the production of aesthetically pleasing areas, medicines, cosmetics, dyes, foods, poisons, wildlife habitats, and saleable goods (see market gardening). People often partake in gardening for its therapeutic, health, educational, cultural, philosophical, environmental, and religious benefits.[2]

A gardener maintaining topiary in Tulcán, Ecuador

search term: climatic risks Wikipedia Page

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search term: climate sensitivity Wikipedia Page

Climate sensitivity is a key measure in climate science and describes how much Earth's surface will warm for a doubling in the atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration.[1][2] Its formal definition is: "The change in the surface temperature in response to a change in the atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2) concentration or other radiative forcing."[3]: 2223 This concept helps scientists understand the extent and magnitude of the effects of climate change.

Diagram of factors that determine climate sensitivity. After increasing CO2 levels, there is an initial warming. This warming gets amplified by the net effect of climate feedbacks.

search term: non-climatic factors Wikipedia Page

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search term: Aedes aegypti Wikipedia Page

Aedes aegypti (/ˈiːdiːz/
US: /eɪdz/ or /ˈeɪdiːz/ from Greek αηδής 'hateful' and /eɪˈdʒɪpti/ from Latin, meaning 'of Egypt'), sometimes called the Egyptian mosquito, dengue mosquito or yellow fever mosquito, is a mosquito that spreads diseases such as dengue fever, yellow fever, and chikungunya. The mosquito can be recognized by black and white markings on its legs and a marking in the form of a lyre on the upper surface of its thorax. The mosquito is native to north Africa, but is now a common invasive species that has spread to tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions throughout the world.

search term: humidity Wikipedia Page

Humidity is the concentration of water vapor present in the air. Water vapor, the gaseous state of water, is generally invisible to the naked eye.[2] Humidity indicates the likelihood for precipitation, dew, or fog to be present.

Global distribution of relative humidity at the surface averaged over the years 1981–2010 from the CHELSA-BIOCLIM+ data set[1]

search term: Salmonella infections Wikipedia Page

Salmonellosis is a symptomatic infection caused by bacteria of the Salmonella type.[1] It is the most common disease to be known as food poisoning (though the name refers to food-borne illness in general). These are defined as diseases, usually either infectious or toxic in nature, caused by agents that enter the body through the ingestion of food. In humans, the most common symptoms are diarrhea, fever, abdominal cramps, and vomiting.[1] Symptoms typically occur between 12 hours and 36 hours after exposure, and last from two to seven days.[4] Occasionally more significant disease can result in dehydration.[4] The old, young, and others with a weakened immune system are more likely to develop severe disease.[1] Specific types of Salmonella can result in typhoid fever or paratyphoid fever.[1][3] Typhoid fever and paratyphoid fever are specific types of salmonellosis, known collectively as enteric fever,[6] and are, respectively, caused by salmonella typhi and paratyphi bacteria, which are only found in humans.[7] Most commonly, salmonellosis cases arise from salmonella bacteria from animals,[8] and chicken is a major source for these infections.[9]

search term: seasonal influenza Wikipedia Page

Flu season is an annually recurring time period characterized by the prevalence of an outbreak of influenza (flu). The season occurs during the cold half of the year in each hemisphere. It takes approximately two days to show symptoms. Influenza activity can sometimes be predicted and even tracked geographically. While the beginning of major flu activity in each season varies by location, in any specific location these minor epidemics usually take about three weeks to reach its pinnacle, and another three weeks to significantly diminish.[1]

Seasonal variation in deaths due to influenza or pneumonia in 122 U.S. cities, as a proportion of all causes[10]

search term: mortality rates Wikipedia Page

Mortality rate, or death rate,[1]: 189, 69 is a measure of the number of deaths (in general, or due to a specific cause) in a particular population, scaled to the size of that population, per unit of time. Mortality rate is typically expressed in units of deaths per 1,000 individuals per year; thus, a mortality rate of 9.5 (out of 1,000) in a population of 1,000 would mean 9.5 deaths per year in that entire population, or 0.95% out of the total. It is distinct from "morbidity", which is either the prevalence or incidence of a disease, and also from the incidence rate (the number of newly appearing cases of the disease per unit of time).[1]: 189[verification needed]

Mortality rate of countries, deaths per thousand

search term: cardiovascular disease Wikipedia Page

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is any disease involving the heart or blood vessels.[3] CVDs constitute a class of diseases that includes: coronary artery diseases (e.g. angina, heart attack), heart failure, hypertensive heart disease, rheumatic heart disease, cardiomyopathy, arrhythmia, congenital heart disease, valvular heart disease, carditis, aortic aneurysms, peripheral artery disease, thromboembolic disease, and venous thrombosis.[3][4]

search term: exertional heat illness Wikipedia Page

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search term: Malnutrition Wikipedia Page

Malnutrition occurs when an organism gets too few or too many nutrients, resulting in health problems.[11][12] Specifically, it is a deficiency, excess, or imbalance of energy, protein and other nutrients which adversely affects the body's tissues and form.[13]

Number of people undernourished by region

search term: Mental Health Wikipedia Page

Mental health encompasses emotional, psychological, and social well-being, influencing cognition, perception, and behavior.[1] Mental health plays a crucial role in an individual's daily life when managing stress, engaging with others, and contributing to life overall. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), it is a "state of well-being in which the individual realizes that their abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and can contribute to their community".[2] It likewise determines how an individual handles stress, interpersonal relationships, and decision-making.[3] Mental health includes subjective well-being, perceived self-efficacy, autonomy, competence, intergenerational dependence, and self-actualization of one's intellectual and emotional potential, among others.[4]

The Greek glyph "ψ" or "psi" when Latinized, is an old symbol for mental health and well being

search term: mental health outcomes Wikipedia Page

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search term: suicide Wikipedia Page

Suicide is the act of intentionally causing one's own death.[9]

search term: substance abuse Wikipedia Page

Substance misuse, also known as drug misuse or, in older vernacular, substance abuse, is the use of a drug in amounts or by methods that are harmful to the individual or others. It is a form of substance-related disorder, differing definitions of drug misuse are used in public health, medical, and criminal justice contexts. In some cases, criminal or anti-social behavior occurs when some persons are under the influence of a drug, and may result in long-term personality changes in individuals.[5] In addition to possible physical, social, and psychological harm, the use of some drugs may also lead to criminal penalties, although these vary widely depending on the local jurisdiction.[6]

search term: mental disorders Wikipedia Page

A mental disorder, also referred to as a mental illness,[6] a mental health condition,[7] or a psychiatric disability,[2] is a behavioral or mental pattern that causes significant distress or impairment of personal functioning.[8] A mental disorder is also characterized by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual's cognition, emotional regulation, or behavior, often in a social context.[9][10] Such disturbances may occur as single episodes, may be persistent, or may be relapsing–remitting. There are many different types of mental disorders, with signs and symptoms that vary widely between specific disorders.[10][11] A mental disorder is one aspect of mental health.

The prevalence of mental illness is higher in more economically unequal countries.

search term: suicide rates Wikipedia Page

The following are lists of countries by estimated suicide rates as published by the World Health Organization (WHO) and other sources.[note 1]

A map of global suicide rates, age-standardized per 100,000 population, 2021.
Please note that in some countries and territories, suicide rates appear absurdly high because they have populations of fewer than 100,000 people, which causes distortions in the rates.

- >30
- 20–30
- 15–20
- 10–15
- 5–10
- 0–5
- Data unavailable

search term: international community Wikipedia Page

The international community is a term used in geopolitics and international relations to refer to a broad group of people and governments of the world.[1]

search term: population change Wikipedia Page

Population change is simply the change in the number of people in a specified area during a specific time period. Demographics (or demography) is the study of population statistics, their variation and its causes. These statistics include birth rates, death rates (and hence life expectancy), migration rates and sex ratios. All of these statistics are investigated by censuses and surveys conducted over a period of time.[1] Some demographic information can also be obtained from historical maps, and aerial photographs.[2]

search term: air temperature Wikipedia Page

Atmospheric temperature is a measure of temperature at different levels of the Earth's atmosphere. It is governed by many factors, including incoming solar radiation, humidity, and altitude. The abbreviation MAAT is often used for Mean Annual Air Temperature of a geographical location.

Comparison of the 1962 US Standard Atmosphere graph of geometric altitude against air density, pressure, the speed of sound and temperature with approximate altitudes of various objects.[1]

search term: healthcare facilities Wikipedia Page

A health facility is, in general, any location where healthcare is provided. Health facilities range from small clinics and doctor's offices to urgent care centers and large hospitals with elaborate emergency rooms and trauma centers. The number and quality of health facilities in a country or region is one common measure of that area's prosperity and quality of life. In many countries, health facilities are regulated to some extent by law; licensing by a regulatory agency is often required before a facility may open for business. Health facilities may be owned and operated by for-profit businesses, non-profit organizations, governments, and, in some cases, individuals, with proportions varying by country. See also the recent review paper,[1]

Hartford Hospital in Hartford, Connecticut. A hospital is one common type of health facility.

search term: dengue outbreaks Wikipedia Page

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search term: Lancet Countdown Wikipedia Page

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search term: risk factors Wikipedia Page

In epidemiology, a risk factor or determinant is a variable associated with an increased risk of disease or infection.[1]: 38

search term: Heatwaves Wikipedia Page

A heat wave or heatwave, sometimes described as extreme heat, is a period of abnormally hot weather [1]: 2911 that lasts for multiple days. A heat wave is usually measured relative to the usual climate in the area and to normal temperatures for the season.[2] The main difficulties with this broad definition emerge when one must quantify what the 'normal' temperature state is, and what the spatial extent of the event may or must be. Temperatures that humans from a hotter climate consider normal can be regarded as a heat wave in a cooler area. This would be the case if the warm temperatures are outside the normal climate pattern for that area. Heat waves have become more frequent, and more intense over land, across almost every area on Earth since the 1950s, the increase in frequency and duration being caused by climate change.[3]: 8–10[4]

A high pressure system in the upper atmosphere traps heat near the ground, forming a heat wave (for North America in this example)

search term: population dynamics Wikipedia Page

Population dynamics is the type of mathematics used to model and study the size and age composition of populations as dynamical systems. Population dynamics is a branch of mathematical biology, and uses mathematical techniques such as differential equations to model behaviour. Population dynamics is also closely related to other mathematical biology fields such as epidemiology, and also uses techniques from evolutionary game theory in its modelling.

Operophtera brumata populations are geometric.[19]

search term: mental health Wikipedia Page

Mental health encompasses emotional, psychological, and social well-being, influencing cognition, perception, and behavior.[1] Mental health plays a crucial role in an individual's daily life when managing stress, engaging with others, and contributing to life overall. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), it is a "state of well-being in which the individual realizes that their abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and can contribute to their community".[2] It likewise determines how an individual handles stress, interpersonal relationships, and decision-making.[3] Mental health includes subjective well-being, perceived self-efficacy, autonomy, competence, intergenerational dependence, and self-actualization of one's intellectual and emotional potential, among others.[4]

The Greek glyph "ψ" or "psi" when Latinized, is an old symbol for mental health and well being

search term: health systems Wikipedia Page

A health system, health care system or healthcare system is an organization of people, institutions, and resources that delivers health care services to meet the health needs of target populations.

Norfolk and Norwich University Hospital, a National Health Service hospital in the United Kingdom

search term: extreme heat events Wikipedia Page

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search term: Public Health Wikipedia Page

Public Health may refer to:

search term: ambient temperature Wikipedia Page

Room temperature, colloquially, denotes the range of air temperatures most people find comfortable indoors while dressed in typical clothing. Comfortable temperatures can be extended beyond this range depending on humidity, air circulation, and other factors.

Mercury-in-glass thermometer measuring an ambient temperature of 23 °C (73 °F) a little above the normal "room temperature" range

search term: WHO Wikipedia Page

The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations which coordinates responses to international public health issues and emergencies.[2] It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and has six regional offices[3] and 150 field offices worldwide. Only sovereign states are eligible to join, and it is the largest intergovernmental health organization at the international level.[4]

search term: conflict Wikipedia Page

Conflict may refer to:

search term: health risks Wikipedia Page

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search term: air pollution Wikipedia Page

Air pollution is the presence of substances in the air that are harmful to humans, other living beings or the environment. Pollutants can be gases, like ozone or nitrogen oxides, or small particles like soot and dust. Both outdoor and indoor air can be polluted.

Demolition of the cooling towers of a power station, Athlone, Cape Town, South Africa, 2010

search term: violence Wikipedia Page

Violence is characterized as the use of physical force by humans to cause harm to other living beings, such as pain, injury, disablement, death, damage and destruction. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines violence as "the intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community, which either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment, or deprivation";[1] it recognizes the need to include violence not resulting in injury or death.[2]

Typology of violence[3]

search term: undernutrition Wikipedia Page

Malnutrition occurs when an organism gets too few or too many nutrients, resulting in health problems.[11][12] Specifically, it is a deficiency, excess, or imbalance of energy, protein and other nutrients which adversely affects the body's tissues and form.[13]

Number of people undernourished by region

search term: socioeconomic development Wikipedia Page

Prescriptive and policy

Three-sector circular flow of income diagram

search term: anxiety Wikipedia Page

Anxiety is an emotion characterized by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil and includes feelings of dread over anticipated events.[1][2][3] Anxiety is different from fear in that fear is defined as the emotional response to a present threat, whereas anxiety is the anticipation of a future one.[4] It is often accompanied by nervous behavior such as pacing back and forth, somatic complaints, and rumination.[5]

Anxiety underlies The Scream (1893) by Edvard Munch, which grapples with a complex human experience.

search term: Lyme disease Wikipedia Page

Lyme disease, also known as Lyme borreliosis, is a tick-borne disease caused by species of Borrelia bacteria, transmitted by blood-feeding ticks in the genus Ixodes.[4][9][10] It is the most common disease spread by ticks in the Northern Hemisphere.[11][8] Infections are most common in the spring and early summer.[4]

search term: natural resources Wikipedia Page

Natural resources are resources that are drawn from nature and used with few modifications. This includes the sources of valued characteristics such as commercial and industrial use, aesthetic value, scientific interest, and cultural value. On Earth, it includes sunlight, atmosphere, water, land, all minerals along with all vegetation, and wildlife.[1][2][3][4]

The rainforest in Amazon, in the Marquesas Islands, is an example of an undisturbed natural resource. Forest provides timber for humans, food, water and shelter for the flora and fauna tribes and animals. The nutrient cycle between organisms forms food chains and fosters a biodiversity of species.

search term: Human Health Wikipedia Page

Health has a variety of definitions, which have been used for different purposes over time. In general, it refers to physical and emotional well-being, especially that associated with normal functioning of the human body, absent of disease, pain (including mental pain), or injury.

Donald Henderson as part of the CDC's smallpox eradication team in 1966

search term: infectious diseases Wikipedia Page

An infection is the invasion of tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce.[1] An infectious disease, also known as a transmissible disease or communicable disease, is an illness resulting from an infection.

search term: Health Wikipedia Page

Health has a variety of definitions, which have been used for different purposes over time. In general, it refers to physical and emotional well-being, especially that associated with normal functioning of the human body, absent of disease, pain (including mental pain), or injury.

Donald Henderson as part of the CDC's smallpox eradication team in 1966

search term: Circumpolar Health Wikipedia Page

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search term: climatic hazards Wikipedia Page

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search term: air quality Wikipedia Page

Air pollution is the presence of substances in the air that are harmful to humans, other living beings or the environment. Pollutants can be gases, like ozone or nitrogen oxides, or small particles like soot and dust. Both outdoor and indoor air can be polluted.

Demolition of the cooling towers of a power station, Athlone, Cape Town, South Africa, 2010

search term: Hurricane Katrina Wikipedia Page

Hurricane Katrina was an extremely powerful and devastating tropical cyclone that killed 1,392 people and caused damage estimated at $125 billion, particularly in and around the city of New Orleans, in late August 2005. It is tied with Hurricane Harvey as being the costliest tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin. Katrina was the twelfth tropical cyclone, the fifth hurricane, the third major hurricane, and the second Category 5 hurricane of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season. It was also the fourth-most intense Atlantic hurricane to make landfall in the contiguous United States, as measured by barometric pressure.

search term: Children Wikipedia Page

A child (pl. children) is a human being between the stages of birth and puberty,[1][2] or between the developmental period of infancy and puberty.[3] The term may also refer to an unborn human being.[4][5] In English-speaking countries, the legal definition of child generally refers to a minor, in this case as a person younger than the local age of majority (there are exceptions such as, for example, the consume and purchase of alcoholic beverage even after said age of majority[6]), regardless of their physical, mental and sexual development as biological adults.[1][7][8] Children generally have fewer rights and responsibilities than adults. They are generally classed as unable to make serious decisions.

International children in traditional clothing at Liberty Weekend

search term: remittances Wikipedia Page

A remittance is a non-commercial transfer of money by a foreign worker, a member of a diaspora community, or a citizen with familial ties abroad, for household income in their home country or homeland.

"Work in Poland legally" street advertisement in Transnistria

search term: Hurricane Sandy Wikipedia Page

Hurricane Sandy (unofficially referred to as Superstorm Sandy)[1][2] was an extremely large and devastating tropical cyclone which ravaged the Caribbean and the coastal Mid-Atlantic region of the United States in late October 2012. It was the largest Atlantic hurricane on record as measured by diameter, with tropical-storm-force winds spanning 1,150 miles (1,850 km).[3][4][5] The storm inflicted nearly US$70 billion in damage (equivalent to $96 billion in 2024), and killed 254 people in eight countries, from the Caribbean to Canada.[6][7] The eighteenth named storm, tenth hurricane, and second major hurricane of the 2012 Atlantic hurricane season, Sandy was a Category 3 storm at its peak intensity when it made landfall in Cuba, though most of the damage it caused was after it became a Category 1-equivalent extratropical cyclone off the coast of the Northeastern United States.[8]

search term: girls Wikipedia Page

A girl is a young female human, usually a child or an adolescent. While the term girl has other meanings, including young woman,[1] daughter[2] or girlfriend[1] regardless of age, the first meaning is the most common one.

A young girl in Laos

search term: international migration Wikipedia Page

International migration occurs when people cross state boundaries and stay in the host state for some minimum length of the time.[1] Migration occurs for many reasons. Many people leave their home countries in order to look for economic opportunities in another country. Others migrate to be with family members who have migrated or because of political conditions in their countries. Education is another reason for international migration, as students pursue their studies abroad, although this migration is sometimes temporary, with a return to the home country after the studies are completed.[2]

In recent decades, migration to nearly every Western country has risen sharply.[6] The slopes of the tops of the differently-colored columns show the rate of percent increase in foreign-born people living in the respective countries.

search term: internal migration Wikipedia Page

Internal migration or domestic migration is human migration within a country. Internal migration tends to be travel for education and for economic improvement or because of a natural disaster or civil disturbance,[1] though a study based on the full formal economy of the United States found that the median post-move rise in income was only 1%.[2]

The impact from volcanic eruption of Mount Nyiragongo has caused domestic migration in Democratic Republic of the Congo population.

search term: health Wikipedia Page

Health has a variety of definitions, which have been used for different purposes over time. In general, it refers to physical and emotional well-being, especially that associated with normal functioning of the human body, absent of disease, pain (including mental pain), or injury.

Donald Henderson as part of the CDC's smallpox eradication team in 1966

search term: epidemiology Wikipedia Page

Epidemiology is the study and analysis of the distribution (who, when, and where), patterns and determinants of health and disease conditions in a defined population, and application of this knowledge to prevent diseases.

Original map by John Snow showing the clusters of cholera cases in the London epidemic of 1854

search term: Migration Wikipedia Page

Migration, migratory, or migrate may refer to:

search term: migration Wikipedia Page

Migration, migratory, or migrate may refer to:

search term: health sector Wikipedia Page

The healthcare industry (also called the medical industry or health economy) is an aggregation and integration of sectors within the economic system that provides goods and services to treat patients with curative, preventive, rehabilitative, and palliative care. It encompasses the creation and commercialization of products and services conducive to the preservation and restoration of well-being. The contemporary healthcare sector comprises three fundamental facets, namely services, products, and finance. It can be further subdivided into numerous sectors and categories and relies on interdisciplinary teams of highly skilled professionals and paraprofessionals to address the healthcare requirements of both individuals and communities.[1][2]

An insurance form with pills

search term: Middle East Wikipedia Page

The Middle East[note 1] is a geopolitical region encompassing the Arabian Peninsula, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, the Levant, and Turkey.

search term: extreme heat Wikipedia Page

A heat wave or heatwave, sometimes described as extreme heat, is a period of abnormally hot weather [1]: 2911 that lasts for multiple days. A heat wave is usually measured relative to the usual climate in the area and to normal temperatures for the season.[2] The main difficulties with this broad definition emerge when one must quantify what the 'normal' temperature state is, and what the spatial extent of the event may or must be. Temperatures that humans from a hotter climate consider normal can be regarded as a heat wave in a cooler area. This would be the case if the warm temperatures are outside the normal climate pattern for that area. Heat waves have become more frequent, and more intense over land, across almost every area on Earth since the 1950s, the increase in frequency and duration being caused by climate change.[3]: 8–10[4]

A high pressure system in the upper atmosphere traps heat near the ground, forming a heat wave (for North America in this example)

search term: elderly Wikipedia Page

Old age is the range of ages for people nearing and surpassing life expectancy. People of old age are called old people, the elderly, elders, senior citizens, seniors, or older adults.[1] Old age is not a definite biological stage: the chronological age denoted as "old age" varies culturally and historically.[2] Some disciplines and domains focus on the aging and the aged, such as the organic processes of aging (senescence),[3] medical studies of the aging process (gerontology),[4] diseases that afflict older adults (geriatrics),[5] technology to support the aging society (gerontechnology), and leisure and sport activities adapted to older people (such as senior sport).

A 93-year-old man from Pichilemu, Chile

search term: malaria Wikipedia Page

Malaria is a mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects vertebrates and Anopheles mosquitoes.[6][7][3] Human malaria causes symptoms that typically include fever, fatigue, vomiting, and headaches.[1][8] In severe cases, it can cause jaundice, seizures, coma, or death.[1][9] Symptoms usually begin 10 to 15 days after being bitten by an infected Anopheles mosquito.[10][4] If not properly treated, people may have recurrences of the disease months later.[3] In those who have recently survived an infection, reinfection usually causes milder symptoms.[1] This partial resistance disappears over months to years if the person has no continuing exposure to malaria.[1] The mosquitoes themselves are harmed by malaria, causing reduced lifespans in those infected by it.[11]

search term: malnutrition Wikipedia Page

Malnutrition occurs when an organism gets too few or too many nutrients, resulting in health problems.[11][12] Specifically, it is a deficiency, excess, or imbalance of energy, protein and other nutrients which adversely affects the body's tissues and form.[13]

Number of people undernourished by region

search term: air conditioning Wikipedia Page

Air conditioning, often abbreviated as A/C (US) or air con (UK),[1] is the process of removing heat from an enclosed space to achieve a more comfortable interior temperature and, in some cases, controlling the humidity of internal air. Air conditioning can be achieved using a mechanical 'air conditioner' or through other methods, such as passive cooling and ventilative cooling.[2][3] Air conditioning is a member of a family of systems and techniques that provide heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC).[4] Heat pumps are similar in many ways to air conditioners but use a reversing valve, allowing them to both heat and cool an enclosed space.[5]

An array of air conditioner condenser units outside a commercial office building

search term: Sendai Framework Wikipedia Page

The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030) is an international document adopted by the United Nations (UN) member states in March 2015 at the World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction held in Sendai, Japan, and endorsed by the UN General Assembly in June 2015.[1][2][3] It is the successor agreement to the Hyogo Framework for Action (2005–2015), which had been the most encompassing international accord to date on disaster risk reduction.

search term: small island states Wikipedia Page

The Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are a grouping of developing countries which are small island countries and small states that tend to share similar sustainable development challenges. These include small but growing populations, limited resources, remoteness, susceptibility to natural disasters, vulnerability to external shocks, excessive dependence on international trade, and fragile environments. Their growth and development are also held back by high communication, energy and transportation costs, irregular international transport volumes, disproportionately expensive public administration and infrastructure due to their small size, and little to no opportunity to create economies of scale. They consist of some of the most vulnerable countries to anthropogenic climate change.

Map of the Small Island Developing States

search term: population exposure Wikipedia Page

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search term: PLoS ONE Wikipedia Page

PLOS One (stylized PLOS ONE, and formerly PLoS ONE) is a peer-reviewed open access mega journal published by the Public Library of Science (PLOS) since 2006. The journal covers primary research from any discipline within science and medicine. The Public Library of Science began in 2000 with an online petition initiative by Nobel Prize winner Harold Varmus, formerly director of the National Institutes of Health and at that time director of Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center; Patrick O. Brown, a biochemist at Stanford University; and Michael Eisen, a computational biologist at the University of California, Berkeley, and the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.

search term: waterborne diseases Wikipedia Page

Waterborne diseases are conditions (meaning adverse effects on human health, such as death, disability, illness or disorders)[1]: 47 caused by pathogenic micro-organisms that are transmitted by water. These diseases can be spread while bathing, washing, drinking water, or by eating food exposed to contaminated water.[2] They are a pressing issue in rural areas amongst developing countries all over the world. While diarrhea and vomiting are the most commonly reported symptoms of waterborne illness, other symptoms can include nausea, stomach cramps, fever, and skin, ear, respiratory, or eye problems.[3] Lack of clean water supply, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) are major causes for the spread of waterborne diseases in a community. Therefore, reliable access to clean drinking water and sanitation is the main method to prevent waterborne diseases.[4]

search term: mortality Wikipedia Page

Mortality may refer to:

search term: climatic variability Wikipedia Page

Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. Climate change may refer to any time in Earth's history, but the term is now commonly used to describe contemporary climate change, often popularly referred to as global warming. Since the Industrial Revolution, the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities.[1]

There is seasonal variability in how new high temperature records have outpaced new low temperature records.[11]

search term: human vulnerability Wikipedia Page

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search term: livelihood shifts Wikipedia Page

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search term: adaptive capacities Wikipedia Page

Adaptive capacity relates to the capacity of systems, institutions, humans and other organisms to adjust to potential damage, to take advantage of opportunities, or to respond to consequences.[1] In the context of ecosystems, adaptive capacity is the ability to maintain, recover, or adapt performance and function as climate conditions change. Species' adaptive capacity is generally characterized by phenotypic plasticity, dispersal ability, and genetic diversity [2], which are foundational to the species' ability to acclimate in situ or track suitable climate across the landscape [3]. In the context of coupled socio-ecological social systems, adaptive capacity is commonly associated with the following characteristics: Firstly, the ability of institutions and networks to learn, and store knowledge and experience. Secondly, the creative flexibility in decision making, transitioning and problem solving. And thirdly, the existence of power structures that are responsive and consider the needs of all stakeholders.

search term: NELD Wikipedia Page

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search term: Livelihoods Wikipedia Page

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search term: ethnicity Wikipedia Page

An ethnicity or ethnic group is a group of people who identify with each other on the basis of perceived shared attributes that distinguish them from other groups. Attributes that ethnicities believe to share include language, culture, common sets of ancestry, traditions, society, religion, history or social treatment.[1][2] Ethnicities are maintained through long-term endogamy[3] and may have a narrow or broad spectrum of genetic ancestry, with some groups having mixed genetic ancestry.[4][5][6] Ethnicity is sometimes used interchangeably with nation, particularly in cases of ethnic nationalism. It is also used interchangeably with race although not all ethnicities identify as racial groups.[7]

A group of ethnic Bengalis in Dhaka, Bangladesh. The Bengalis form the third-largest ethnic group in the world after the Han Chinese and Arabs.[15]

search term: livelihood impacts Wikipedia Page

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search term: forced migration Wikipedia Page

Forced displacement (also forced migration or forced relocation) is an involuntary or coerced movement of a person or people away from their home or home region. The UNHCR defines "forced displacement" as follows: displaced "as a result of persecution, conflict, generalized violence or human rights violations".[2]

Syrian and Iraqi migrants arriving in Lesbos, Greece, in 2015 seeking refuge.

search term: livelihood resources Wikipedia Page

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search term: human capital Wikipedia Page

Prescriptive and policy

Human capital infographic

search term: social tipping points Wikipedia Page

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search term: livelihood security Wikipedia Page

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search term: marginalisation Wikipedia Page

Social exclusion or social marginalisation is the social disadvantage and relegation to the fringe of society. It is a term that has been used widely in Europe and was first used in France in the late 20th century.[1] In the EU context, the European Commission defines it as "a situation whereby a person is prevented (or excluded) from contributing to and benefiting from economic and social progress".[2] It is used across disciplines including education, sociology, psychology, healthcare, politics and economics.[3][4]

search term: Indigenous People Wikipedia Page

There is no generally accepted definition of Indigenous peoples,[a][1][2][3] although in the 21st century the focus has been on self-identification, cultural difference from other groups in a state, a special relationship with their traditional territory, and an experience of subjugation and discrimination under a dominant cultural model.[4]

A Kaqchikel family in the Patzutzun hamlet of Sololá, Guatemala (1993)

search term: social groups Wikipedia Page

In the social sciences, a social group is defined as two or more people who interact with one another, share similar characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity.[1][2] Regardless, social groups come in a myriad of sizes and varieties. For example, a society can be viewed as a large social group. The system of behaviors and psychological processes occurring within a social group or between social groups is known as group dynamics.

Individuals in groups are connected to each other by social relationships.

search term: poor Wikipedia Page

Poverty is a state or condition in which an individual lacks the financial resources and essentials for a basic standard of living. Poverty can have diverse environmental, legal, social, economic, and political causes and effects.[1] When evaluating poverty in statistics or economics there are two main measures: absolute poverty which compares income against the amount needed to meet basic personal needs, such as food, clothing, and shelter;[2] secondly, relative poverty measures when a person cannot meet a minimum level of living standards, compared to others in the same time and place. The definition of relative poverty varies from one country to another, or from one society to another.[2]

Global income distribution over time. The chart shows a significant shift of incomes toward higher levels.

search term: state fragility Wikipedia Page

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search term: regional clusters Wikipedia Page

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search term: Climatic change Wikipedia Page

Climatic change may refer to:

search term: multidimensional poverty Wikipedia Page

Multidimensional Poverty Indices use a range of indicators (monetary, health, education and others) to calculate a summary poverty figure for a given population, in which a larger figure indicates a higher level of poverty. This figure considers both the proportion of the population that is deemed poor and the 'breadth' of poverty experienced by these 'poor' households, following the Alkire & Foster 'counting method'.[1] The method was developed following increased criticism of monetary and consumption-based poverty measures, seeking to capture the deprivations in non-monetary factors that contribute towards well-being. While there is a standard set of indicators, dimensions, cutoffs and thresholds used for a 'Global MPI',[2] the method is flexible and there are many examples of poverty studies that modify it to best suit their environment. The methodology has been mainly, but not exclusively,[3] applied to developing countries.

MPI Headcount in West Africa

search term: livelihood assets Wikipedia Page

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search term: institutional support Wikipedia Page

The page "Institutional support" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: WorldRiskIndex Wikipedia Page

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search term: Cyclone Aila Wikipedia Page

Severe Cyclonic Storm Aila (JTWC designation: 02B) was the second named tropical cyclone of the 2009 North Indian Ocean cyclone season. Warned by both the Regional Specialized Meteorological Center (RSMC) and Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC), Aila formed over a disturbance over the Bay of Bengal on May 23, 2009 and started to intensify, reaching sustained wind speeds of 110 kmh (70 mph). It was the worst natural disaster to affect Bangladesh since Cyclone Sidr in November 2007. A relatively strong tropical cyclone, it caused extensive damage in India and Bangladesh.

search term: vulnerable countries Wikipedia Page

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search term: future risks Wikipedia Page

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search term: systemic vulnerability Wikipedia Page

The page "Systemic vulnerability" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: hazard event Wikipedia Page

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search term: traditional communities Wikipedia Page

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search term: individual vulnerability Wikipedia Page

The page "Individual vulnerability" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: poverty traps Wikipedia Page

In economics, a cycle of poverty, poverty trap or generational poverty is when poverty seems to be inherited, preventing subsequent generations from escaping it.[2] It is caused by self-reinforcing mechanisms that cause poverty, once it exists, to persist unless there is outside intervention.[3] It can persist across generations, and when applied to developing countries, is also known as a development trap.[4]

United States. Map highlighting counties defined as "persistent poverty counties."[1]

search term: basic services Wikipedia Page

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search term: gender inequalities Wikipedia Page

Gender inequality is the social phenomenon in which people are not treated equally on the basis of gender. This inequality can be caused by gender discrimination or sexism. The treatment may arise from distinctions regarding biology, psychology, or cultural norms prevalent in the society. Some of these distinctions are empirically grounded, while others appear to be social constructs. While current policies around the world cause inequality among individuals, it is women who are most affected. Gender inequality weakens women in many areas such as health, education, and business life.[1] Studies show the different experiences of genders across many domains including education, life expectancy, personality, interests, family life, careers, and political affiliation. Gender inequality is experienced differently across different cultures.

Female labor force participation rate, ages 15-64 (World Bank/ILO, 2019)

search term: livelihood strategies Wikipedia Page

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search term: Inequality Wikipedia Page

Inequality may refer to:

search term: climate change hazards Wikipedia Page

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search term: chronic poverty Wikipedia Page

Chronic poverty is a phenomenon whereby an individual or group is in a state of poverty over extended period of time. While determining both the implicit poverty line and the duration needed to be considered long-term is debated, the identification of this kind of poverty is considered important because it may require different policies than those needed for addressing transient poverty.[1][2][3][4][5][6]

search term: climate change responses Wikipedia Page

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search term: structural vulnerability Wikipedia Page

Structural vulnerability is a distinct likelihood of encountering major difficulties within the family atmosphere or the threat to the family itself because of such deficient capital resources as money, education, access to health care, or important/vital information.

search term: vulnerability reduction Wikipedia Page

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search term: human rights Wikipedia Page

Human rights are universally recognized moral principles or norms that establish standards of human behavior and are often protected by both national and international laws. These rights are considered inherent and inalienable, meaning they belong to every individual simply by virtue of being human, regardless of characteristics like nationality, ethnicity, religion, or socio-economic status. They encompass a broad range of civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights, such as the right to life, freedom of expression, protection against enslavement, and right to education.

Magna Carta or "Great Charter" was one of the world's first documents containing commitments by a sovereign to his people to respect certain legal rights.[dubious – discuss]

search term: INFORM Wikipedia Page

INFORM (Information Network Focus on Religious Movements) is an independent registered charity[1] located in the Department of Theology and Religious Studies at King's College, London;[2] from 1988-2018 it was based at the London School of Economics. It was founded by the sociologist of religion, Eileen Barker, with start-up funding from the British Home Office and Britain's mainstream churches.[3] Its stated aims are to "prevent harm based on misinformation about minority religions and sects by bringing the insights and methods of academic research into the public domain" and to provide "information about minority religions and sects which is as accurate, up-to-date and as evidence-based as possible."[4]

search term: non-economic losses Wikipedia Page

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search term: Bhutan Wikipedia Page

Bhutan,[a] officially the Kingdom of Bhutan,[b][18] is a landlocked country in South Asia, in the Eastern Himalayas between China to the north and northwest and India to the south and southeast.[c] With a population of over 727,145 and a territory of 38,394 square kilometres (14,824 sq mi), Bhutan ranks 133rd in land area and 160th in population. Bhutan is a democratic constitutional monarchy with a King as the head of state and a prime minister as the head of government. The Je Khenpo is the head of the state religion, Vajrayana Buddhism.

search term: ecological thresholds Wikipedia Page

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search term: energy security Wikipedia Page

Energy security is the association between national security and the availability of natural resources for energy consumption (as opposed to household energy insecurity). Access to cheaper energy has become essential to the functioning of modern economies. However, the uneven distribution of energy supplies among countries has led to significant vulnerabilities. International energy relations have contributed to the globalization of the world leading to energy security and energy vulnerability at the same time.[1]

A U.S. Navy F/A-18 Super Hornet displaying an "Energy Security" logo.

search term: Nature Climate Change Wikipedia Page

Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Portfolio covering all aspects of research on global warming, the current climate change, especially its effects. It was established in 2011 as the continuation of Nature Reports Climate Change, itself established in 2007.[1] Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake.[2] According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal had a 2023 impact factor of 30.3.[3]

search term: geoforum Wikipedia Page

Geoforum is a peer-reviewed academic journal of geography which focuses on social, political, economic, and environmental activities that occur around the globe within the context of geographical space and time. It was originally published by Pergamon Press and is now published by Elsevier. The editors-in-chief are Rob Fletcher (Wageningen University & Research) and Sarah Hall (University of Nottingham). According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal has a 2023 impact factor of 3.4.[1]

search term: vulnerable regions Wikipedia Page

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search term: Melanesia Wikipedia Page

9°S 161°E﻿ / ﻿9°S 161°E﻿ / -9; 161

search term: livelihood options Wikipedia Page

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search term: climate events Wikipedia Page

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search term: class Wikipedia Page

Class, Classes, or The Class may refer to:

search term: livelihood activities Wikipedia Page

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search term: gender inequality Wikipedia Page

Gender inequality is the social phenomenon in which people are not treated equally on the basis of gender. This inequality can be caused by gender discrimination or sexism. The treatment may arise from distinctions regarding biology, psychology, or cultural norms prevalent in the society. Some of these distinctions are empirically grounded, while others appear to be social constructs. While current policies around the world cause inequality among individuals, it is women who are most affected. Gender inequality weakens women in many areas such as health, education, and business life.[1] Studies show the different experiences of genders across many domains including education, life expectancy, personality, interests, family life, careers, and political affiliation. Gender inequality is experienced differently across different cultures.

Female labor force participation rate, ages 15-64 (World Bank/ILO, 2019)

search term: Gargey Village Wikipedia Page

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search term: poverty alleviation Wikipedia Page

Poverty reduction, poverty relief, or poverty alleviation is a set of measures, both economic and humanitarian, that are intended to permanently lift people out of poverty. Measures, like those promoted by Henry George in his economics classic Progress and Poverty, are those that raise, or are intended to raise, ways of enabling the poor to create wealth for themselves as a conduit of ending poverty forever. In modern times, various economists within the Georgism movement propose measures like the land value tax to enhance access to the natural world for all.

Graph (based on data from the World Bank) showing the proportion of the world's population (blue) and the absolute numbers of people (red) living on <1, <1.25, and <2 US dollars a day (2005 equivalent values) between 1981 and 2008

search term: structural inequalities Wikipedia Page

Structural inequality occurs when the fabric of organizations, institutions, governments or social networks contains an embedded cultural, linguistic, economic, religious/belief, physical or identity based bias which provides advantages for some members and marginalizes or produces disadvantages for other members. This can involve, personal agency, freedom of expression, property rights, freedom of association, religious freedom, social status, or unequal access to health care, housing, education, physical, cultural, social, religious or political belief, financial resources or other social opportunities. Structural inequality is believed to be an embedded part of all known cultural groups.[citation needed] The global history of slavery, serfdom, indentured servitude and other forms of coerced cultural or government mandated labour or economic exploitation that marginalizes individuals and the subsequent suppression of human rights (see UDHR) are key factors defining structural inequality.

search term: social norms Wikipedia Page

A social norm is a shared standard of acceptable behavior by a group.[1] Social norms can both be informal understandings that govern the behavior of members of a society, as well as be codified into rules and laws.[2] Social normative influences or social norms, are deemed to be powerful drivers of human behavioural changes and well organized and incorporated by major theories which explain human behaviour.[3] Institutions are composed of multiple norms. Norms are shared social beliefs about behavior; thus, they are distinct from "ideas", "attitudes", and "values", which can be held privately, and which do not necessarily concern behavior.[4] Norms are contingent on context, social group, and historical circumstances.[5]

Shaking hands after a sports match is an example of a social norm.

search term: emotional distress Wikipedia Page

In medicine, distress is an aversive state in which a person is unable to completely adapt to difficult situations and their resulting effects and shows maladaptive behaviors.[1] It can be evident in the presence of various phenomena, such as inappropriate social interaction (e.g., aggression, passivity, or withdrawal).

Woman portraying the condition of distress

search term: poor countries Wikipedia Page

The least developed countries (LDCs) are developing countries listed by the United Nations that exhibit the lowest indicators of socioeconomic development. The concept of LDCs originated in the late 1960s and the first group of LDCs was listed by the UN in its resolution 2768 (XXVI) on 18 November 1971.[1]

Least developed countries (designated by the UN as of 2025)
Former least developed countries

search term: basic infrastructure services Wikipedia Page

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search term: vulnerability assessments Wikipedia Page

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search term: coping capacity Wikipedia Page

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search term: CRED Wikipedia Page

Dreamplug Technologies Pvt. Ltd., doing business as CRED, is an Indian fintech company, based in Bangalore.[3][4][5] Founded in 2018 by Kunal Shah,[6][7] it is a reward-based credit card payments app.[8] CRED also allows users to make house rent payments[9] and provides short-term credit lines.[10]

search term: farming Wikipedia Page

Agriculture is the practice of cultivating the soil, planting, raising, and harvesting both food and non-food crops, as well as livestock production. Broader definitions also include forestry and aquaculture. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated plants and animals created food surpluses that enabled people to live in the cities. While humans started gathering grains at least 105,000 years ago, nascent farmers only began planting them around 11,500 years ago. Sheep, goats, pigs, and cattle were domesticated around 10,000 years ago. Plants were independently cultivated in at least 11 regions of the world. In the 20th century, industrial agriculture based on large-scale monocultures came to dominate agricultural output.

Modern agriculture: a center pivot irrigation system on a field

search term: future vulnerability Wikipedia Page

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search term: extreme droughts Wikipedia Page

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search term: biofuels Wikipedia Page

Biofuel is a fuel that is produced over a short time span from biomass, rather than by the very slow natural processes involved in the formation of fossil fuels such as oil.[1] Biofuel can be produced from plants or from agricultural, domestic or industrial bio waste.[2][3][4][5] Biofuels are mostly used for transportation, but can also be used for heating and electricity.[6]: 173[7] Biofuels (and bio energy in general) are regarded as a renewable energy source.[8]: 11 The use of biofuel has been subject to criticism regarding the "food vs fuel" debate, varied assessments of their sustainability, and ongoing deforestation and biodiversity loss as a result of biofuel production.

A sample of biodiesel

search term: Indigenous territories Wikipedia Page

An indigenous territory is an area of land set aside for the use of indigenous peoples in a country that is largely populated by colonists from another region, typically Europe. The term may refer to

search term: natural capital Wikipedia Page

Natural capital is the world's stock of natural resources, which includes geology, soils, air, water and all living organisms. Some natural capital assets provide people with free goods and services, often called ecosystem services. All of these underpin our economy and society, and thus make human life possible.[3][4]

Mangrove swamp at Iriomote Island, Japan, providing beneficial services of sediment accumulation, coastal protection, nursery and fish-spawning grounds which may in turn support coastal fishing communities. At least 35% of the world's stock of mangrove swamps was destroyed in the past 20 years.[1]

search term: physical capital Wikipedia Page

Physical capital represents in economics one of the three primary factors of production. Physical capital is the apparatus used to produce a good and services. Physical capital represents the tangible man-made goods that help and support the production. Inventory, cash, equipment or real estate are all examples of physical capital.

search term: land use sector Wikipedia Page

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search term: Nature climate change Wikipedia Page

Nature Climate Change is a monthly peer-reviewed scientific journal published by Nature Portfolio covering all aspects of research on global warming, the current climate change, especially its effects. It was established in 2011 as the continuation of Nature Reports Climate Change, itself established in 2007.[1] Its first editor-in-chief was Olive Heffernan and the journal's current editor-in-chief is Bronwyn Wake.[2] According to the Journal Citation Reports, the journal had a 2023 impact factor of 30.3.[3]

search term: Disaster Risk Science Wikipedia Page

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search term: UNDRR Wikipedia Page

The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) was created in December 1999 to ensure the implementation of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction.[1][2]

search term: Environmental Sustainability Wikipedia Page

Sustainability (from the latin sustinere - hold up, hold upright; furnish with means of support; bear, undergo, endure) is the ability to continue over a long period of time.[1][2] In modern usage it generally refers to a state in which the environment, economy, and society will continue to exist over a long period of time.[3] Many definitions emphasize the environmental dimension.[4][5] This can include addressing key environmental problems, such as climate change and biodiversity loss. The idea of sustainability can guide decisions at the global, national, organizational, and individual levels.[6] A related concept is that of sustainable development, and the terms are often used to mean the same thing.[7] UNESCO distinguishes the two like this: "Sustainability is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while sustainable development refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it."[8]

Three visual representations of sustainability and its three dimensions. The left image shows sustainability as three intersecting circles. The top right is a nested approach where social and economic sustainability are contained within environmental sustainability. The bottom right shows pillars with the different components holding up sustainability.

search term: adaptation gap Wikipedia Page

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search term: urban poor Wikipedia Page

A slum is a derogatory term for a highly populated urban residential area consisting of densely packed housing units of weak build quality and often associated with poverty. The infrastructure in slums is often deteriorated or incomplete, and they are primarily inhabited by impoverished people.[1]

Share of urban population living in slums (2022)

search term: intersectionality Wikipedia Page

Intersectionality is an analytical framework for understanding how groups' and individuals' social and political identities result in unique combinations of discrimination and privilege. Examples of these intersecting and overlapping factors include gender, caste, sex, race, ethnicity, class, sexuality, religion, disability, physical appearance, and age.[1] These factors can lead to both empowerment and oppression.[2][3]

An intersectional analysis considers a collection of factors that affect a social individual in combination, rather than considering each factor in isolation, as illustrated here using a Venn diagram.

search term: extreme poverty Wikipedia Page

Extreme poverty[a] is the most severe type of poverty, defined by the United Nations (UN) as "a condition characterized by severe deprivation of basic human needs, including food, safe drinking water, sanitation facilities, health, shelter, education and information. It depends not only on income but also on access to services".[1] Historically, other definitions have been proposed within the United Nations.

Number of people living in extreme poverty from 1820 to 2015.
Population not in extreme poverty
Population living in extreme poverty

search term: Poverty Wikipedia Page

Poverty is a state or condition in which an individual lacks the financial resources and essentials for a basic standard of living. Poverty can have diverse environmental, legal, social, economic, and political causes and effects.[1] When evaluating poverty in statistics or economics there are two main measures: absolute poverty which compares income against the amount needed to meet basic personal needs, such as food, clothing, and shelter;[2] secondly, relative poverty measures when a person cannot meet a minimum level of living standards, compared to others in the same time and place. The definition of relative poverty varies from one country to another, or from one society to another.[2]

Global income distribution over time. The chart shows a significant shift of incomes toward higher levels.

search term: poverty reduction Wikipedia Page

Poverty reduction, poverty relief, or poverty alleviation is a set of measures, both economic and humanitarian, that are intended to permanently lift people out of poverty. Measures, like those promoted by Henry George in his economics classic Progress and Poverty, are those that raise, or are intended to raise, ways of enabling the poor to create wealth for themselves as a conduit of ending poverty forever. In modern times, various economists within the Georgism movement propose measures like the land value tax to enhance access to the natural world for all.

Graph (based on data from the World Bank) showing the proportion of the world's population (blue) and the absolute numbers of people (red) living on <1, <1.25, and <2 US dollars a day (2005 equivalent values) between 1981 and 2008

search term: inequality Wikipedia Page

Inequality may refer to:

search term: social capital Wikipedia Page

Social capital is a concept used in sociology and economics to define networks of relationships which are productive towards advancing the goals of individuals and groups.[1][2] It involves the effective functioning of social groups through interpersonal relationships, a shared sense of identity, a shared understanding, shared norms, shared values, trust, cooperation, and reciprocity. Some have described it as a form of capital that produces public goods for a common purpose, although this does not align with how it has been measured.

search term: Climate Change Strategies Wikipedia Page

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search term: storms Wikipedia Page

A storm is any disturbed state of the natural environment or the atmosphere of an astronomical body.[1] It may be marked by significant disruptions to normal conditions such as strong wind, tornadoes, hail, thunder and lightning (a thunderstorm), heavy precipitation (snowstorm, rainstorm), heavy freezing rain (ice storm), strong winds (tropical cyclone, windstorm), wind transporting some substance through the atmosphere such as in a dust storm, among other forms of severe weather.

A storm seen at the Baltic Sea near the island of Öland, Sweden.

search term: Cape Town Wikipedia Page

Cape Town[b] is the legislative capital of South Africa. It is the country's oldest city and the seat of the Parliament of South Africa.[13] Cape Town is the country's second-largest city by population, after Johannesburg, and the largest city in the Western Cape.[14] The city is part of the City of Cape Town metropolitan municipality.

Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias planting the cross at Cape Point, 1488.

search term: poverty Wikipedia Page

Poverty is a state or condition in which an individual lacks the financial resources and essentials for a basic standard of living. Poverty can have diverse environmental, legal, social, economic, and political causes and effects.[1] When evaluating poverty in statistics or economics there are two main measures: absolute poverty which compares income against the amount needed to meet basic personal needs, such as food, clothing, and shelter;[2] secondly, relative poverty measures when a person cannot meet a minimum level of living standards, compared to others in the same time and place. The definition of relative poverty varies from one country to another, or from one society to another.[2]

Global income distribution over time. The chart shows a significant shift of incomes toward higher levels.

search term: Global Environmental Change Wikipedia Page

Global Environmental Change is a scientific journal publishing peer-reviewed research on environmental change that was established in 1990 by Butterworth-Heinemann. It is currently published by Elsevier. As of 2024[update] the editor-in-chief are Dabo Guan and Harini Nagendra. As of 2019[update] the journal had an impact factor of 10.466, according to Journal Citation Reports, ranking it 4th out of 265 journals in the category environmental sciences.[1]

search term: livelihoods Wikipedia Page

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search term: vulnerable communities Wikipedia Page

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search term: climate vulnerability Wikipedia Page

Climate change vulnerability is a concept that describes how strongly people or ecosystems are likely to be affected by climate change. Its formal definition is the "propensity or predisposition to be adversely affected" by climate change. It can apply to humans and also to natural systems (or ecosystems).[1]: 12 Issues around the capacity to cope and adapt are also part of this concept.[1]: 5 Vulnerability is a component of climate risk. It differs within communities and also across societies, regions, and countries.[2] It can increase or decrease over time.[1]: 12 Vulnerability is generally a bigger problem for people in low-income countries than for those in high-income countries.[3]

World gross national income per capita: Lower income countries tend to have a higher vulnerability to climate change.

search term: climate hazards Wikipedia Page

A hazard is a potential source of harm. Substances, events, or circumstances can constitute hazards when their nature would potentially allow them to cause damage to health, life, property, or any other interest of value. The probability of that harm being realized in a specific incident, combined with the magnitude of potential harm, make up its risk. This term is often used synonymously in colloquial speech.

A hazard pictogram to indicate a hazard from a flammable substance.

search term: World Development Wikipedia Page

World Development is a monthly peer-reviewed academic journal covering development studies. It was established in 1973 and is published by Elsevier.

search term: Ecological Economics Wikipedia Page

Prescriptive and policy

search term: bioenergy Wikipedia Page

Bioenergy is a type of renewable energy that is derived from plants and animal waste.[1] The biomass that is used as input materials consists of recently living (but now dead) organisms, mainly plants.[2] Thus, fossil fuels are not regarded as biomass under this definition. Types of biomass commonly used for bioenergy include wood, food crops such as corn, energy crops and waste from forests, yards, or farms.[3]

Biomass plant in Scotland.

search term: social networks Wikipedia Page

1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias

Evolution graph of a social network: Barabási model.

search term: typhoons Wikipedia Page

A typhoon is a tropical cyclone that develops between 180° and 100°E in the Northern Hemisphere and which produces sustained hurricane-force winds of at least 119 km/h (74 mph).[1] This region is referred to as the Northwestern Pacific Basin,[2] accounting for almost one third of the world's tropical cyclones. For organizational purposes, the northern Pacific Ocean is divided into three regions: the eastern (North America to 140°W), central (140°W to 180°), and western (180° to 100°E). The Regional Specialized Meteorological Center (RSMC) for tropical cyclone forecasts is in Japan, with other tropical cyclone warning centres for the northwest Pacific in Hawaii (the Joint Typhoon Warning Center), the Philippines, and Hong Kong. Although the RSMC names each system, the main name list itself is coordinated among 18 countries that have territories threatened by typhoons each year.[3]

Typhoon Noru over the Pacific Ocean

search term: UNISDR Wikipedia Page

The United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR) was created in December 1999 to ensure the implementation of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction.[1][2]

search term: agricultural productivity Wikipedia Page

Agricultural productivity is measured as the ratio of agricultural outputs to inputs.[1] While individual products are usually measured by weight, which is known as crop yield, varying products make measuring overall agricultural output difficult. Therefore, agricultural productivity is usually measured as the market value of the final output. This productivity can be compared to many different types of inputs such as labour or land. Such comparisons are called partial measures of productivity.[2]

Food production per capita since 1961

search term: Global Warming Wikipedia Page

Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate. The current rise in global temperatures is driven by human activities, especially fossil fuel (coal, oil and natural gas) burning since the Industrial Revolution.[3][4] Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices release greenhouse gases.[5] These gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight, warming the lower atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, the primary gas driving global warming, has increased in concentration by about 50% since the pre-industrial era to levels not seen for millions of years.[6]

Global surface temperature reconstruction over the past 2000 years using proxy data from tree rings, corals, and ice cores in blue.[42] Directly observed data is in red.[43]

search term: environmental research Wikipedia Page

Environmental science is an interdisciplinary academic field that integrates physics, biology, meteorology, mathematics and geography (including ecology, chemistry, plant science, zoology, mineralogy, oceanography, limnology, soil science, geology and physical geography, and atmospheric science) to the study of the environment, and the solution of environmental problems. Environmental science emerged from the fields of natural history and medicine during the Enlightenment.[1] Today it provides an integrated, quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the study of environmental systems.[2]

Rachel Carson published her groundbreaking monograph, Silent Spring, in 1962, bringing the study of environmental science to the forefront of society.

search term: development Wikipedia Page

Development or developing may refer to:

search term: Disaster Risk Reduction Wikipedia Page

Disaster risk reduction aims to make disasters less likely to happen. The approach, also called DRR or disaster risk management, also aims to make disasters less damaging when they do occur. DRR aims to make communities stronger and better prepared to handle disasters. In technical terms, it aims to make them more resilient or less vulnerable. When DRR is successful, it makes communities less the vulnerable because it mitigates the effects of disasters.[2] This means DRR can make risky events fewer and less severe. Climate change can increase climate hazards. So development efforts often consider DRR and climate change adaptation together.[3]

Disaster risk reduction progress score for some countries in 2011. The score of 5 is best. Assessments include four indicators that reflect the degree to which countries have prioritised disaster risk reduction and the strengthening of relevant institutions.[1]

search term: adaptation limits Wikipedia Page

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search term: disasters Wikipedia Page

A disaster is an event that causes serious harm to people, buildings, economies, or the environment, and the affected community cannot handle it alone.[1][2][better source needed] Natural disasters like avalanches, floods, earthquakes, and wildfires are caused by natural hazards.[3] Human-made disasters like oil spills, terrorist attacks and power outages are caused by people. Nowadays, it is hard to separate natural and human-made disasters because human actions can make natural disasters worse.[4][5][6] Climate change also affects how often disasters due to extreme weather hazards happen.

Ruins from the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, one of the worst disasters in the history of the United States

search term: climate change impacts Wikipedia Page

Effects of climate change are well documented and growing for Earth's natural environment and human societies. Changes to the climate system include an overall warming trend, changes to precipitation patterns, and more extreme weather. As the climate changes it impacts the natural environment with effects such as more intense forest fires, thawing permafrost, and desertification. These changes impact ecosystems and societies, and can become irreversible once tipping points are crossed. Climate activists are engaged in a range of activities around the world that seek to ameliorate these issues or prevent them from happening.[1]

The primary causes[5] and the wide-ranging impacts[6][7][3]: 3–36 of climate change. Some effects act as positive feedbacks that amplify climate change.[8]

search term: risk reduction Wikipedia Page

Risk reduction may refer to:

search term: west Africa Wikipedia Page

West Africa, also known as Western Africa, is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo, as well as Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha (a United Kingdom Overseas Territory).[8][9] As of 2021, the population of West Africa is estimated at 419 million,[1][2] and approximately 382 million in 2017, of which 189.7 million were female and 192.3 million male.[3] The region is one of the fastest growing in Africa, both demographically[10] and economically.[11]

search term: African countries Wikipedia Page

This is a list of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa. It includes fully recognised states, states with limited or zero recognition, and dependent territories of both African and non-African states. It lists 56 sovereign states (54 of which are member states of the United Nations), two non-sovereign (dependent) territories of non-African sovereign states, and nine sub-national regions of non-African sovereign states. Malta and parts of France, Italy, Portugal, and Spain are located on the African continental plate, some considerably closer to the African mainland than the European mainland but, politically, are generally considered to be European by convention. Egypt, although extending into Asia through the Sinai Peninsula, is considered an African state.

search term: north Africa Wikipedia Page

North Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region. However, it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of the Western Sahara in the west, to Egypt and Sudan's Red Sea coast in the east.[7]

search term: ipcc Wikipedia Page

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is an intergovernmental body of the United Nations. Its job is to "provide governments at all levels with scientific information that they can use to develop climate policies".[1] The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) set up the IPCC in 1988. The United Nations endorsed the creation of the IPCC later that year.[2] It has a secretariat in Geneva, Switzerland, hosted by the WMO. It has 195 member states who govern the IPCC.[3] The member states elect a bureau of scientists to serve through an assessment cycle. A cycle is usually six to seven years. The bureau selects experts in their fields to prepare IPCC reports.[4] There is a formal nomination process by governments and observer organizations to find these experts. The IPCC has three working groups and a task force, which carry out its scientific work.[4]

search term: Egypt Wikipedia Page

Egypt,[e] officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the northeast corner of Africa and southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Palestine (Gaza Strip) and Israel to the northeast, the Red Sea to the east, Sudan to the south, and Libya to the west; the Gulf of Aqaba in the northeast separates Egypt from Jordan and Saudi Arabia. Cairo is the capital, largest city, and leading cultural center, while Alexandria is the second-largest city and an important hub of industry and tourism.[21] With over 107 million inhabitants, Egypt is the third-most populous country in Africa and 15th-most populated in the world.

search term: Rwanda Wikipedia Page

Rwanda,[a] officially the Republic of Rwanda, is a landlocked country in East Africa. Known as the "Land of a Thousand Hills" (French: pays des mille collines) for its high elevation and rolling terrain, its geography is dominated by mountains in the west and savanna in the southeast. The largest and most notable lakes are mainly in the western and northern regions of the country, and several volcanoes that form part of the Virunga volcanic chain are primarily in the northwest. The climate is considered tropical highland, with two rainy seasons and two dry seasons each year. Its capital and largest city is Kigali, located at the centre of the country, at 1,567 metres above sea level.

A reconstruction of the ancient King's Palace at Nyanza

search term: Namibia Wikipedia Page

Namibia,[C] officially the Republic of Namibia,[D] is a country in Southern Africa.[24] Its borders include the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Angola and Zambia to the north, Botswana to the east and South Africa to the south; in the northeast, approximating a quadripoint,[25] Zimbabwe lies less than 200 metres (660 feet) away along the Zambezi River near Kazungula, Zambia. Namibia's capital and largest city is Windhoek.

Foreign Observer identification badge issued during the 1989 Namibian election

search term: World Bank Group Wikipedia Page

The World Bank Group (WBG) is a family of five international organizations that make leveraged loans to developing countries. It is the largest and best-known development bank in the world and an observer at the United Nations Development Group.[7] The bank is headquartered in Washington, D.C., in the United States. It provided around $98.83 billion in loans and assistance to "developing" and transition countries in the 2021 fiscal year.[8] The bank's stated mission is to achieve the twin goals of ending extreme poverty and building shared prosperity.[9] Total lending as of 2015 for the last 10 years through Development Policy Financing was approximately $117 billion.[10] Its five organizations have been established over time:

search term: Botswana Wikipedia Page

Botswana,[c] officially the Republic of Botswana,[d] is a landlocked country in Southern Africa. Botswana is topographically flat, with approximately 70% of its territory being a part of the Kalahari Desert. It is bordered by South Africa to the south and southeast, Namibia to the west and north, Zambia to the north, and Zimbabwe to the northeast. With a population of slightly over 2.4 million people and a comparable land area to France, Botswana is one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world. It is essentially the nation-state of the Tswana people, who constitute nearly 80% of the population.

The 'Two Rhino' painting at Tsodilo, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

search term: climate change literacy Wikipedia Page

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search term: African Wikipedia Page

African may refer to anything from or pertaining to the continent of Africa.

search term: Sudan Wikipedia Page

Sudan,[c] officially the Republic of the Sudan,[d] is a country in Northeast Africa. It borders the Central African Republic to the southwest, Chad to the west, Libya to the northwest, Egypt to the north, the Red Sea to the east, Eritrea and Ethiopia to the southeast, and South Sudan to the south. Sudan has a population of 50 million people as of 2024[25] and occupies 1,886,068 square kilometres (728,215 square miles), making it Africa's third-largest country by area. Sudan's capital and most populous city is Khartoum.

search term: PLoS One Wikipedia Page

PLOS One (stylized PLOS ONE, and formerly PLoS ONE) is a peer-reviewed open access mega journal published by the Public Library of Science (PLOS) since 2006. The journal covers primary research from any discipline within science and medicine. The Public Library of Science began in 2000 with an online petition initiative by Nobel Prize winner Harold Varmus, formerly director of the National Institutes of Health and at that time director of Memorial Sloan–Kettering Cancer Center; Patrick O. Brown, a biochemist at Stanford University; and Michael Eisen, a computational biologist at the University of California, Berkeley, and the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory.

search term: bitstream Wikipedia Page

A bitstream (or bit stream), also known as binary sequence, is a sequence of bits. A bytestream is a sequence of bytes. Typically, each byte is an 8-bit quantity, and so the term octet stream is sometimes used interchangeably. An octet may be encoded as a sequence of 8 bits in multiple different ways (see bit numbering) so there is no unique and direct translation between bytestreams and bitstreams.

search term: Angola Wikipedia Page

Angola,[a] officially the Republic of Angola,[b] is a country on the west-central coast of Southern Africa. It is the second-largest Portuguese-speaking (Lusophone) country after Brazil in both total area and population and is the seventh-largest country in Africa. It is bordered by Namibia to the south, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the north, Zambia to the east, and the Atlantic Ocean to the west. Angola has an exclave province, the province of Cabinda, that borders the Republic of the Congo and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The capital and most populous city is Luanda.

King João I, Manikongo of the Kingdom of Kongo

search term: precipitation variability Wikipedia Page

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search term: drought frequency Wikipedia Page

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search term: African Development Bank Wikipedia Page

The African Development Bank Group (AfDB, also known as BAD in French) is a multilateral development finance institution, headquartered in Abidjan, Ivory Coast, since September 2014.[1][2] The AfDB is a financial provider to African governments and private companies investing in the regional member countries (RMC).[3]

Regional member countries
Non-regional member countries
Non-regional member countries - ADF only

search term: Congo Basin Wikipedia Page

The Congo Basin (French: Bassin du Congo) is the sedimentary basin of the Congo River. The Congo Basin is located in Central Africa, in a region known as west equatorial Africa. The Congo Basin region is sometimes known simply as the Congo. It contains some of the largest tropical rainforests in the world and is an important source of water used in agriculture and energy generation.[1]

Course and drainage basin of the Congo River

search term: Jamba Wikipedia Page

search term: Africans Wikipedia Page

The ethnic groups of Africa number in the thousands, with each ethnicity generally having their own language (or dialect of a language) and culture. The ethnolinguistic groups include various Afroasiatic, Khoisan, Niger-Congo, and Nilo-Saharan populations.

1996 map of the major ethnolinguistic groups of Africa, by the Library of Congress Geography and Map Division (substantially based on G.P. Murdock, Africa, its peoples and their cultural history, 1959). Colour-coded are 15 major ethnolinguistic super-groups, as follows:
Afroasiatic
Hamitic (Berber, Cushitic) + Semitic (Ethiopian, Arabic)
Hausa (Chadic)
Niger–Congo
Bantu
"Guinean" (Volta-Niger, Kwa, Kru)
"Western Bantoid" (Atlantic)
"Central Bantoid" (Gur, Senufo)
"Eastern Bantoid" (Southern Bantoid)
Mande
Nilo-Saharan (unity debated)
Nilotic
Central Sudanic, Eastern Sudanic (besides Nilotic)
Kanuri
Songhai
other
Khoi-San (unity doubtful; Khoikhoi, San, Sandawe + Hadza)
Malayo-Polynesian (Malagasy)
Indo-European (Afrikaaner)

search term: Tunisia Wikipedia Page

Tunisia,[b] officially the Republic of Tunisia,[c][19] is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It is bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Tunisia also shares maritime borders with Italy through the islands of Sicily and Sardinia to the north and Malta to the east. It features the archaeological sites of Carthage dating back to the 9th century BC, as well as the Great Mosque of Kairouan. Known for its ancient architecture, souks, and blue coasts, it covers 163,610 km2 (63,170 sq mi), and has a population of 12.1 million. It contains the eastern end of the Atlas Mountains and the northern reaches of the Sahara desert; much of its remaining territory is arable land. Its 1,300 km (810 mi) of coastline includes the African conjunction of the western and eastern parts of the Mediterranean Basin. Tunisia is home to Africa's northernmost point, Cape Angela. Located on the northeastern coast, Tunis is the capital and largest city of the country, which is itself named after Tunis. The official language of Tunisia is Arabic. The vast majority of Tunisia's population is Arab and Muslim. Vernacular Tunisian Arabic is the most spoken language, and French serves as an administrative and educational language in some contexts, but has no official status.

Carthaginian dependencies and protectorates through the Punic Wars

search term: Morocco Wikipedia Page

Morocco,[c] officially the Kingdom of Morocco,[d] is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It has coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to the east, and the disputed territory of Western Sahara to the south, occupied by Morocco since 1975. Morocco also claims the Spanish exclaves of Ceuta, Melilla and Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera, and several small Spanish-controlled islands off its coast.[20] It has a population of approximately 37 million. Islam is both the official and predominant religion, while Arabic and Berber are the official languages. Additionally, French and the Moroccan dialect of Arabic are widely spoken. The culture of Morocco is a mix of Arab, Berber, African and European cultures. Its capital is Rabat, while its largest city is Casablanca.[21]

search term: Somalia Wikipedia Page

Somalia,[a] officially the Federal Republic of Somalia,[b] is the easternmost country in continental Africa. Stretching across the Horn of Africa, it borders Ethiopia to the west, Djibouti[19] to the northwest, Kenya to the southwest, the Gulf of Aden to the north, and the Indian Ocean to the east. Somalia has the longest coastline on Africa's mainland.[20] Somalia has an estimated population of 18.1 million,[21][22][23] of which 2.7 million live in the capital and largest city, Mogadishu. As one of Africa's most ethnically homogenous countries, around 85% of its residents are ethnic Somalis. The official languages of the country are Somali and Arabic, though Somali is the main language. Somalia has historic and religious ties to the Arab world.[24] The overwhelming majority of the population are Sunni Muslims.[25][26]

Neolithic rock art at the Laas Geel complex depicting a long-horned cow

search term: Lake Tanganyika Wikipedia Page

Lake Tanganyika (/ˌtæŋɡənˈjiːkə, -ɡæn-/ TANG-gən-YEE-kə, -⁠gan-;[4] Kirundi: Ikiyaga ca Tanganyika) is an African Great Lake.[5] It is the world's second-largest freshwater lake by volume and the second deepest, in both cases after Lake Baikal in Siberia.[6][7] It is the world's longest freshwater lake.[6] It is also the 6th largest lake by area.[8] The lake is shared among four countries—Tanzania, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (the DRC), Burundi, and Zambia—with Tanzania (46%) and the DRC (40%) possessing the majority of the lake. It drains via the Lukuga River into the Congo River system, which ultimately discharges at Banana, Democratic Republic of the Congo into the Atlantic Ocean.[2]

search term: malaria transmission Wikipedia Page

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search term: educational attainment Wikipedia Page

Educational attainment is a term commonly used by statisticians to refer to the highest degree of education an individual has completed as defined by the US Census Bureau Glossary.[1]

search term: precipitation changes Wikipedia Page

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search term: GCF Wikipedia Page

search term: Indigenous knowledge systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: Social Determinants of Health Wikipedia Page

Social determinants of health (SDOH) are the factors, oftentimes related to environment or status, that affect the conditions of daily life and one's health[1]. They are the factors that determine a persons vulnerability for disease but also their ability to gain access to care. They are usually broken down into five categories: Economic Stability, Education, Social and Community Context, Health Care Access, and Built Environment.

Visualization of the social determinants of health

search term: HIV Wikipedia Page

The human immunodeficiency viruses (HIV) are two species of Lentivirus (a subgroup of retrovirus) that infect humans. Over time, they cause acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS),[1][2] a condition in which progressive failure of the immune system allows life-threatening opportunistic infections and cancers to thrive.[3] Without treatment, the average survival time after infection with HIV is estimated to be 9 to 11 years, depending on the HIV subtype.[4]

search term: Central African Republic Wikipedia Page

The Central African Republic (CAR)[a] is a landlocked country in Central Africa. It is bordered by Chad to the north, Sudan to the northeast, South Sudan to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the south, the Republic of the Congo to the southwest, and Cameroon to the west. Bangui is the country's capital and largest city, bordering the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The Central African Republic covers a land area of about 620,000 square kilometres (240,000 sq mi). As of 2024, it has a population of 5,357,744, consisting of about 80 ethnic groups, and is in the scene of a civil war, which has been ongoing since 2012.[9] Having been a French colony under the name Ubangi-Shari,[b] French is the official language, with Sango, a Ngbandi-based creole language, as the national and co-official language.[1][10]

The Bouar Megaliths, pictured here on a 1967 Central African stamp, date back to the very late Neolithic Era (c.3500–2700 BCE).

search term: projected risks Wikipedia Page

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search term: African river basins Wikipedia Page

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search term: Algeria Wikipedia Page

Algeria,[e] officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria,[f] is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It is bordered to the northeast by Tunisia; to the east by Libya; to the southeast by Niger; to the southwest by Mali, Mauritania, and Western Sahara; to the west by Morocco; and to the north by the Mediterranean Sea. The capital and largest city is Algiers, located in the far north on the Mediterranean coast.

search term: Climate Information Services Wikipedia Page

Climate information services (CIS) entail the dissemination of climate data in a way that aids people and organizations in making decisions. CIS helps its users foresee and control the hazards associated with a changing and unpredictable climate.[1] It encompasses a knowledge loop that includes targeted user communities' access to, interpretation of, communication of, and use of pertinent, accurate, and trustworthy climate information, as well as their feedback on that use. Climate information services involve the timely production, translation and delivery of useful climate data, information and knowledge.[2]

search term: Africa Adaptation Initiative Wikipedia Page

Climate change in Africa is a serious threat as Africa is one of the most vulnerable regions to the effects of climate change, despite contributing the least to causing it. Climate change is causing increasingly erratic rainfall patterns, more frequent extreme weather events including droughts, floods, and rising sea surface temperatures in Africa. These changes threaten food and water security, biodiversity, public health, and economic development.[1][2] Africa is currently warming faster than the rest of the world on average.[3]

Graph showing temperature change in Africa between 1901 and 2021, with red colour being warmer and blue being colder than average (The average temperature during 1971–2000 is taken as the reference point for these changes.)

search term: South Sudan Wikipedia Page

South Sudan (/suːˈdɑːn, -ˈdæn/), officially the Republic of South Sudan, is a landlocked country in East Africa.[16] It is bordered by Sudan to the north, Ethiopia to the east, the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the southwest, Uganda to the south, Kenya to the southeast and to the west by the Central African Republic. South Sudan's diverse landscape includes vast plains and plateaus, dry and tropical savannahs, inland floodplains, and forested mountains. The Nile River system is the defining physical feature of the country, running south to north across its center, which is dominated by a large swamp known as the Sudd. South Sudan has an estimated population of just over 12.7 million in 2024. Juba is the capital and largest city.

search term: Sierra Leone Wikipedia Page

Sierra Leone,[a] officially the Republic of Sierra Leone,[b] is a country on the southwest coast of West Africa. It is bordered to the southeast by Liberia and by Guinea to the north. Sierra Leone's land area is 73,252 km2 (28,283 sq mi).[15] It has a tropical climate and environments ranging from savannas to rainforests. As of the 2023 census, Sierra Leone has a population of 8,460,512.[3] Freetown is its capital and largest city.

Fragments of prehistoric pottery from Kamabai Rock Shelter

search term: climate scenarios Wikipedia Page

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search term: food crops Wikipedia Page

A crop is a plant that can be grown and harvested extensively for profit or subsistence.[1] A crop is a plant or plant product that is grown for a specific purpose such as food, fibre, or fuel.[citation needed]

Domesticated plants of the New World. Clockwise from top left: maize, tomato, potato, vanilla, rubber, cocoa bean and tobacco.

search term: Heat stress Wikipedia Page

Hyperthermia, also known as overheating, is a condition in which an individual's body temperature is elevated beyond normal due to failed thermoregulation. The person's body produces or absorbs more heat than it dissipates. According to the International Emergency Medicine Education Project, severe hyperthermia (body temperature elevation of beyond 40 °C (104 °F)) "becomes a medical emergency requiring immediate treatment to prevent disability or death".[4] Almost half a million deaths are recorded every year from hyperthermia.[5]

search term: Cyclone Idai Wikipedia Page

Intense Tropical Cyclone Idai (/ɪˈdaɪ, ˈiːdaɪ/) was one of the worst tropical cyclones on record to affect Africa and the Southern Hemisphere.[4] The long-lived storm caused catastrophic damage, and a humanitarian crisis in Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and Malawi, leaving more than 1,500 people dead and many more missing. Idai is the deadliest tropical cyclone recorded in the South-West Indian Ocean basin. In the Southern Hemisphere, which includes the Australian, South Pacific, and South Atlantic basins, Idai ranks as the second-deadliest tropical cyclone on record. The only system with a higher death toll is the 1973 Flores cyclone that killed 1,650 off the coast of Indonesia.[5][6] Idai is also the second costliest tropical cyclone in the South-West Indian Ocean basin, behind Cyclone Chido of 2024.

search term: Climate Risk Wikipedia Page

Climate risk is the potential for problems for societies or ecosystems from the impacts of climate change.[2] The assessment of climate risk is based on formal analysis of the consequences, likelihoods and responses to these impacts. Societal constraints can also shape adaptation options.[3][4] There are different values and preferences around risk, resulting in differences of risk perception.[5]: 149

The risk equation shows that climate risk is a product of hazard, exposure, and climate change vulnerability (where 'x' represents interaction between the components).[1]

search term: multilateral development banks Wikipedia Page

An international financial institution (IFI) is a financial institution that has been established (or chartered) by more than one country, and hence is subject to international law. Its owners or shareholders are generally national governments, although other international institutions and other organizations occasionally figure as shareholders. The most prominent IFIs are creations of multiple nations, although some bilateral financial institutions (created by two countries) exist and are technically IFIs. The best known IFIs were established after World War II to assist in the reconstruction of Europe and provide mechanisms for international cooperation in managing the global financial system.

search term: tropical Africa Wikipedia Page

The Afrotropical realm is one of the Earth's eight biogeographic realms. It includes Sub-Saharan Africa, the southern Arabian Peninsula, the island of Madagascar, and the islands of the western Indian Ocean.[1] It was formerly known as the Ethiopian Zone or Ethiopian Region.

The Afrotropical realm (in blue)

search term: fodder availability Wikipedia Page

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search term: freshwater fisheries Wikipedia Page

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search term: strategic financial investment Wikipedia Page

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search term: UNFCCC Paris Agreement Wikipedia Page

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search term: food sector Wikipedia Page

The food industry is a complex, global network of diverse businesses that supplies most of the food consumed by the world's population. The food industry today has become highly diversified, with manufacturing ranging from small, traditional, family-run activities that are highly labour-intensive, to large, capital-intensive and highly mechanized industrial processes. Many food industries depend almost entirely on local agriculture, animal farms, produce, and/or fishing.[1]

Packaged food aisles at an American grocery store

search term: smallholder farming systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: climate information services Wikipedia Page

Climate information services (CIS) entail the dissemination of climate data in a way that aids people and organizations in making decisions. CIS helps its users foresee and control the hazards associated with a changing and unpredictable climate.[1] It encompasses a knowledge loop that includes targeted user communities' access to, interpretation of, communication of, and use of pertinent, accurate, and trustworthy climate information, as well as their feedback on that use. Climate information services involve the timely production, translation and delivery of useful climate data, information and knowledge.[2]

search term: Liberia Wikipedia Page

Coordinates:
6°19′N 10°48′W﻿ / ﻿6.317°N 10.800°W﻿ / 6.317; -10.800

A European map of West Africa and the Grain Coast, 1736. It has the archaic mapping designation of Negroland.

search term: mean annual temperatures Wikipedia Page

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search term: Mount Kenya Wikipedia Page

Mount Kenya (Meru: Kĩrĩmaara, Kikuyu: Kĩrĩmanyaga, Kamba: Ki nyaa, Embu: Kĩ nyaga) is the second-highest peak in Africa, after Kilimanjaro.[5] The highest peaks of the mountain are Batian (5,199 metres (17,057 feet)), Nelion (5,188 m (17,021 ft)) and Point Lenana (4,985 m (16,355 ft)). Mount Kenya is located in the former Eastern and Central provinces of Kenya; its peak is now the intersection of Meru, Embu, Kirinyaga, Nyeri and Tharaka Nithi counties, about 16.5 kilometres (10.3 miles) south of the equator, around 150 km (90 mi) north-northeast of the capital Nairobi.[6][5] Mount Kenya is the source of the name of the Republic of Kenya.

search term: Kilimanjaro Wikipedia Page

Mount Kilimanjaro (/ˌkɪlɪmənˈdʒɑːroʊ/)[3] is a large dormant volcano in Tanzania. It is the highest mountain in Africa and the highest free-standing mountain above sea level in the world, at 5,895 m (19,341 ft) above sea level and 4,900 m (16,100 ft) above its plateau base. It is also the highest volcano in the Eastern Hemisphere and the fourth most topographically prominent peak on Earth.

search term: Cape Town drought Wikipedia Page

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search term: Lake Chad Wikipedia Page

Lake Chad (Arabic: بحيرة تشاد, Kanuri: Sádǝ, French: Lac Tchad) is an endorheic freshwater lake located at the junction of four countries: Nigeria, Niger, Chad, and Cameroon, in western and central Africa respectively, with a catchment area in excess of 1,000,000 km2 (390,000 sq mi). It is an important wetland ecosystem in West-Central Africa. The lakeside is rich in reeds and swamps, and the plain along the lake is fertile, making it an important irrigated agricultural area. The lake is rich in aquatic resources and is one of the important freshwater fish producing areas in Africa.

search term: Makutapora wellfield Wikipedia Page

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search term: river basin Wikipedia Page

A drainage basin is an area of land in which all flowing surface water converges to a single point, such as a river mouth, or flows into another body of water, such as a lake or ocean. A basin is separated from adjacent basins by a perimeter, the drainage divide,[1] made up of a succession of elevated features, such as ridges and hills. A basin may consist of smaller basins that merge at river confluences, forming a hierarchical pattern.[2]

The Mississippi River drains the largest area of any U.S. river, much of it agricultural regions. Agricultural runoff and other water pollution that flows to the outlet is the cause of the hypoxic or dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico.

search term: global environmental change Wikipedia Page

Global Environmental Change is a scientific journal publishing peer-reviewed research on environmental change that was established in 1990 by Butterworth-Heinemann. It is currently published by Elsevier. As of 2024[update] the editor-in-chief are Dabo Guan and Harini Nagendra. As of 2019[update] the journal had an impact factor of 10.466, according to Journal Citation Reports, ranking it 4th out of 265 journals in the category environmental sciences.[1]

search term: socioeconomic status Wikipedia Page

Socioeconomic status (SES) is a measurement used by economists and sociologists. The measurement combines a person's work experience and their or their family's access to economic resources and social position in relation to others.[1][2]

An 1880 painting by Jean-Eugène Buland showing a stark contrast in socioeconomic status

search term: meningitis Wikipedia Page

Meningitis (pl.meningitides) is acute or chronic inflammation of the protective membranes covering the brain and spinal cord, collectively called the meninges.[10] The most common symptoms are fever, intense headache, vomiting and neck stiffness and occasionally photophobia.[1] Other symptoms include confusion or altered consciousness, nausea, and an inability to tolerate loud noises.[1] Young children often exhibit only nonspecific symptoms, such as irritability, drowsiness, or poor feeding.[1] A non-blanching rash (a rash that does not fade when a glass is rolled over it) may also be present.[11]

search term: rural Ethiopia Wikipedia Page

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search term: internal migrants Wikipedia Page

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search term: Internal climate migrants Wikipedia Page

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search term: Libya Wikipedia Page

Libya,[b] officially the State of Libya,[c] is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to the east, Sudan to the southeast, Chad to the south, Niger to the southwest, Algeria to the west, and Tunisia to the northwest. With an area of almost 1.8 million km2 (700,000 sq mi), Libya is the fourth-largest country in Africa and the Arab world, and the 16th-largest in the world.[10] The country claims 32,000 square kilometres of southeastern Algeria, south of the Libyan town of Ghat.[1][11] The capital and largest city is Tripoli, located in the northwest and contains over a million of Libya's 7 million people.[12]

Archaeological site of Sabratha, Libya

search term: documentation Wikipedia Page

Documentation is any communicable material that is used to describe, explain or instruct regarding some attributes of an object, system or procedure, such as its parts, assembly, installation, maintenance, and use.[1] As a form of knowledge management and knowledge organization, documentation can be provided on paper, online, or on digital or analog media, such as audio tape or CDs. Examples are user guides, white papers, online help, and quick-reference guides. Paper or hard-copy documentation has become less common.[citation needed] Documentation is often distributed via websites, software products, and other online applications.

search term: Climate Resilience Wikipedia Page

Climate resilience is a concept to describe how well people or ecosystems are prepared to bounce back from certain climate hazard events. The formal definition of the term is the "capacity of social, economic and ecosystems to cope with a hazardous event or trend or disturbance".[1]: 7 For example, climate resilience can be the ability to recover from climate-related shocks such as floods and droughts.[2] Different actions can increase climate resilience of communities and ecosystems to help them cope. They can help to keep systems working in the face of external forces. For example, building a seawall to protect a coastal community from flooding might help maintain existing ways of life there.

Climate Resilience Graphic used in re-election campaign of Joe Biden in the U.S.

search term: ustain Wikipedia Page

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search term: South African Journal of Wikipedia Page

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search term: Hydrological Sciences Wikipedia Page

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search term: The Lancet Planetary Health Wikipedia Page

The Lancet is a weekly peer-reviewed general medical journal, founded in England in 1823.[1] It is one of the world's highest-impact academic journals and also one of the oldest medical journals still in publication.[2][3][4][5]

search term: Zambezi River Basin Wikipedia Page

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search term: east Africa Wikipedia Page

East Africa, also known as Eastern Africa or the East of Africa, is a region at the eastern edge of the African continent, distinguished by its unique geographical, historical, and cultural landscape. Defined in varying scopes, the region is recognized in the United Nations Statistics Division scheme as encompassing 18 sovereign states and 4 territories. It includes the Horn of Africa to the North and Southeastern Africa to the south.[1]

search term: Zimbabwe Wikipedia Page

Zimbabwe,[c] officially the Republic of Zimbabwe, is a landlocked country in Southeast Africa, between the Zambezi and Limpopo Rivers, bordered by South Africa to the south, Botswana to the southwest, Zambia to the north, and Mozambique to the east. The capital and largest city is Harare, and the second largest is Bulawayo.

Towers of Great Zimbabwe

search term: Africa Wikipedia Page

Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent after Asia. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 20% of Earth's land area and 6% of its total surface area.[9] With nearly 1.4 billion people as of 2021, it accounts for about 18% of the world's human population. Africa's population is the youngest among all the continents;[10][11] the median age in 2012 was 19.7, when the worldwide median age was 30.4.[12] Based on 2024 projections, Africa's population will exceed 3.8 billion people by 2100.[13] Africa is the least wealthy inhabited continent per capita and second-least wealthy by total wealth, ahead of Oceania. Scholars have attributed this to different factors including geography, climate,[14] corruption,[14] colonialism, the Cold War,[15][16] and neocolonialism. Despite this low concentration of wealth, recent economic expansion and a large and young population make Africa an important economic market in the broader global context, and Africa has a large quantity of natural resources.

Lucy, an Australopithecus afarensis skeleton discovered in Ethiopia's Afar Triangle in 1974

search term: Southern Africa Wikipedia Page

Southern Africa is the southernmost region of Africa. No definition is agreed upon, but some groupings include the United Nations geoscheme, the intergovernmental Southern African Development Community, and the physical geography definition based on the physical characteristics of the land. The most restrictive definition considers the region of Southern Africa to consist of Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Namibia, and South Africa,[1] while other definitions also include several other countries from the area.

Southern Africa (UN subregion and the SACU)
Geographical Southern Africa, including the UN subregion
Southern African Development Community (SADC)

search term: Zambia Wikipedia Page

Zambia,[b] officially the Republic of Zambia,[c] is a landlocked country at the crossroads of Central, Southern and East Africa.[9] It is typically referred to being in South-Central Africa or Southern Africa. It is bordered to the north by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Tanzania to the north-east, Malawi to the east, Mozambique to the southeast, Zimbabwe and Botswana to the south, Namibia to the southwest, and Angola to the west. The capital city of Zambia is Lusaka, located in the south-central part of Zambia. The population is concentrated mainly around Lusaka in the south and the Copperbelt Province to the north, the core economic hubs of the country.

Ancient (but graffitied) Rock Art in Nsalu Cave, Kasanka National Park in North-Central Zambia

search term: Nigeria Wikipedia Page

Nigeria,[b] officially the Federal Republic of Nigeria, is a country in West Africa.[10] It is situated between the Sahel to the north and the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean to the south. It covers an area of 923,769 square kilometres (356,669 sq mi). With a population of more than 230 million, it is the most populous country in Africa, and the world's sixth-most populous country. Nigeria borders Niger in the north, Chad in the northeast, Cameroon in the east, and Benin in the west. Nigeria is a federal republic comprising 36 states and the Federal Capital Territory, where its capital, Abuja, is located. The largest city in Nigeria by population is Lagos, one of the largest metropolitan areas in the world and the largest in Africa.

Nok sculpture, terracotta

search term: Mozambique Wikipedia Page

Mozambique,[d] officially the Republic of Mozambique,[e] is a country located in Southeast Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west, and Eswatini and South Africa to the south and southwest. The sovereign state is separated from the Comoros, Mayotte, and Madagascar through the Mozambique Channel to the east. The capital and largest city is Maputo.

Mozambican dhow

search term: Tanzania Wikipedia Page

Tanzania,[c] officially the United Republic of Tanzania,[d] is a country in East Africa within the African Great Lakes region. It is bordered by Uganda to the northwest; Kenya to the northeast; the Indian Ocean to the east; Mozambique and Malawi to the south; Zambia to the southwest; and Rwanda, Burundi, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west. According to a 2024 estimate, Tanzania has a population of around 67.5 million,[6] making it the most populous country located entirely south of the equator.

A 1.8-million-year-old stone chopping tool discovered at Olduvai Gorge and on display at the British Museum

search term: central Africa Wikipedia Page

Central Africa (French: Afrique centrale; Spanish: África central; Portuguese: África Central) is a subregion of the African continent comprising various countries according to different definitions. Middle Africa is an analogous term used by the United Nations in its geoscheme for Africa and consists of the following countries: Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and São Tomé and Príncipe. The United Nations Office for Central Africa also includes Burundi and Rwanda in the region, which are considered part of East Africa in the geoscheme.[1] These eleven countries are members of the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS).[1] Six of those countries (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Republic of the Congo) are also members of the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC) and share a common currency, the Central African CFA franc.[2]

search term: South Africa Wikipedia Page

South Africa, officially the Republic of South Africa (RSA), is the southernmost country in Africa.[d] Its nine provinces are bounded to the south by 2,798 kilometres (1,739 miles) of coastline that stretches along the South Atlantic and Indian Ocean;[18][19][20] to the north by the neighbouring countries of Namibia, Botswana, and Zimbabwe; to the east and northeast by Mozambique and Eswatini; and it encloses Lesotho.[21]

Front of Maropeng at the Cradle of Humankind

search term: Burkina Faso Wikipedia Page

Burkina Faso[a] is a landlocked country in West Africa,[1] bordered by Mali to the northwest, Niger to the northeast, Benin to the southeast, Togo and Ghana to the south, and Ivory Coast to the southwest. It covers an area of 274,223 km2 (105,878 sq mi). In 2024, the country had an estimated population of approximately 23,286,000.[13] Called the Republic of Upper Volta from 1958 to 1984, it was renamed Burkina Faso by president Thomas Sankara. Its citizens are known as Burkinabes, and its capital and largest city is Ouagadougou.

West Africa c.1875

search term: climate shocks Wikipedia Page

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search term: Uganda Wikipedia Page

Uganda,[b] officially the Republic of Uganda,[c] is a landlocked country in East Africa. It is bordered to the east by Kenya, to the north by South Sudan, to the west by the Democratic Republic of the Congo, to the south-west by Rwanda, and to the south by Tanzania. The southern part includes a substantial portion of Lake Victoria, shared with Kenya and Tanzania. Uganda is in the African Great Lakes region, lies within the Nile basin, and has a varied equatorial climate. As of 2024[update] it had a population of 49.3 million, of whom 8.5 million lived in the capital and largest city, Kampala.

A caesarean section performed by indigenous healers in Kahura, in the kingdom of Bunyoro[14] (present-day Uganda) as observed by medical missionary Robert William Felkin in 1879[15]

search term: southern Africa Wikipedia Page

Southern Africa is the southernmost region of Africa. No definition is agreed upon, but some groupings include the United Nations geoscheme, the intergovernmental Southern African Development Community, and the physical geography definition based on the physical characteristics of the land. The most restrictive definition considers the region of Southern Africa to consist of Botswana, Eswatini, Lesotho, Namibia, and South Africa,[1] while other definitions also include several other countries from the area.

Southern Africa (UN subregion and the SACU)
Geographical Southern Africa, including the UN subregion
Southern African Development Community (SADC)

search term: African cities Wikipedia Page

This is a list of lists of cities in Africa.

The location of Africa

search term: indigenous knowledge Wikipedia Page

Traditional knowledge (TK), indigenous knowledge (IK), folk knowledge, and local knowledge generally refers to knowledge systems embedded in the cultural traditions of regional, indigenous, or local communities.[1]

Tribal Colleges preserve and pass on both general knowledge and, through employing community Elders, traditional Indigenous knowledge. (Leech Lake Tribal College, Minnesota)

search term: Central Africa Wikipedia Page

Central Africa (French: Afrique centrale; Spanish: África central; Portuguese: África Central) is a subregion of the African continent comprising various countries according to different definitions. Middle Africa is an analogous term used by the United Nations in its geoscheme for Africa and consists of the following countries: Angola, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and São Tomé and Príncipe. The United Nations Office for Central Africa also includes Burundi and Rwanda in the region, which are considered part of East Africa in the geoscheme.[1] These eleven countries are members of the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS).[1] Six of those countries (Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and Republic of the Congo) are also members of the Economic and Monetary Community of Central Africa (CEMAC) and share a common currency, the Central African CFA franc.[2]

search term: East Africa Wikipedia Page

East Africa, also known as Eastern Africa or the East of Africa, is a region at the eastern edge of the African continent, distinguished by its unique geographical, historical, and cultural landscape. Defined in varying scopes, the region is recognized in the United Nations Statistics Division scheme as encompassing 18 sovereign states and 4 territories. It includes the Horn of Africa to the North and Southeastern Africa to the south.[1]

search term: North Africa Wikipedia Page

North Africa is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region. However, it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of the Western Sahara in the west, to Egypt and Sudan's Red Sea coast in the east.[7]

search term: UNESCO Wikipedia Page

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO /juːˈnɛskoʊ/)[2][a] is a specialized agency of the United Nations (UN) with the aim of promoting world peace and security through international cooperation in education, arts, sciences and culture.[3][4] It has 194 member states and 12 associate members,[5] as well as partners in the non-governmental, intergovernmental and private sector.[6] Headquartered in Paris, France, UNESCO has 53 regional field offices[7] and 199 national commissions.[8][9]

search term: Malawi Wikipedia Page

Malawi,[a][9] officially the Republic of Malawi,[b] is a landlocked country in Southeastern Africa. It is bordered by Zambia to the west, Tanzania to the north and northeast, and Mozambique to the east, south, and southwest. Malawi spans over 118,484 km2 (45,747 sq mi) and has an estimated population of 22,224,282 (as of July 2025).[10] Lilongwe is its capital and largest city, while the next three largest cities are Blantyre, Mzuzu, and Zomba, the former capital.

Chongoni Rock Art Area

search term: Cameroon Wikipedia Page

Cameroon,[a] officially the Republic of Cameroon,[b] is a country in Central Africa. It shares boundaries with Nigeria to the west and north, Chad to the northeast, the Central African Republic to the east, and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo to the south. Its coastline lies on the Bight of Biafra, part of the Gulf of Guinea, and the Atlantic Ocean. Due to its strategic position at the crossroads between West Africa and Central Africa, it has been categorized as being in both geostrategic locations. Cameroon's population of nearly 31 million people speak 250 native languages, in addition to the national tongues of English and French. The capital city of the country is Yaoundé.

Bamum script is a writing system developed by King Njoya in the late 19th century.

search term: West Africa Wikipedia Page

West Africa, also known as Western Africa, is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, and Togo, as well as Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha (a United Kingdom Overseas Territory).[8][9] As of 2021, the population of West Africa is estimated at 419 million,[1][2] and approximately 382 million in 2017, of which 189.7 million were female and 192.3 million male.[3] The region is one of the fastest growing in Africa, both demographically[10] and economically.[11]

search term: Regional Environmental Change Wikipedia Page

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search term: Senegal Wikipedia Page

Senegal,[e] officially the Republic of Senegal,[f] is the westernmost country in West Africa, situated along the Atlantic Ocean coast. It borders Mauritania to the north, Mali to the east, Guinea to the southeast and Guinea-Bissau to the southwest. Senegal nearly surrounds The Gambia, a country occupying a narrow strip of land along the banks of the Gambia River, which separates Senegal's southern region of Casamance from the rest of the country.[13][14] It also shares a maritime border with Cape Verde. The capital and largest city of Senegal is Dakar.

search term: Mali Wikipedia Page

Mali,[c] officially the Republic of Mali,[d] is a landlocked country in West Africa. It is the eighth-largest country in Africa, with an area of over 1,240,192 square kilometres (478,841 sq mi).[9] The country is bordered to the north by Algeria, to the east by Niger, to the northwest by Mauritania, to the south by Burkina Faso and Ivory Coast, and to the west by Guinea and Senegal. The population of Mali is about 23.29 million,[14][15] 47.19% of which are estimated to be under the age of 15 in 2024.[16] Its capital and largest city is Bamako. The country has 13 official languages, of which Bambara is the most commonly spoken.

The extent of the Mali Empire's peak

search term: Ghana Wikipedia Page

Ghana,[a] officially the Republic of Ghana, is a country in West Africa. It is situated with the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and shares borders with Côte d'Ivoire to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, and Togo to the east. Ghana covers an area of 239,567 km2 (92,497 sq mi), spanning diverse ecologies, from coastal savannas to tropical rainforests. With 35 million inhabitants, Ghana is the second-most populous country in West Africa. The capital and largest city is Accra; other significant cities include Tema, Kumasi, Sunyani, Ho, Cape Coast, Techiman, Tamale, Bolga, Wa, and Sekondi-Takoradi.

An 1850 map showing the Akan Kingdom of Ashanti within the Guinea region and surrounding regions in West Africa

search term: Madagascar Wikipedia Page

Madagascar,[a] officially the Republic of Madagascar,[b] is an island country in the Indian Ocean that includes the island of Madagascar and numerous smaller peripheral islands. Lying off the southeastern coast of Africa, it is the world's fourth-largest island, the second-largest island country, and the 46th-largest country overall.[15] Its capital and largest city is Antananarivo.

search term: climate information Wikipedia Page

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search term: Kenya Wikipedia Page

Kenya,[a] officially the Republic of Kenya,[b] is a country located in East Africa. With an estimated population of more than 52.4 million as of mid-2024,[13] Kenya is the 27th-most-populous country in the world[7] and the 7th most populous in Africa. Kenya's capital and largest city is Nairobi. The second-largest and oldest city is Mombasa, a major port city located on Mombasa Island. Other major cities within the country include Kisumu, Nakuru and Eldoret. Going clockwise Kenya is bordered by South Sudan to the northwest (though much of that border includes the disputed Ilemi Triangle), Ethiopia to the north, Somalia to the east, the Indian Ocean to the southeast, Tanzania to the southwest, and Lake Victoria and Uganda to the west.

search term: afforestation Wikipedia Page

Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where there was no recent tree cover.[1] There are three types of afforestation: natural regeneration, agroforestry and tree plantations.[2] In the context of climate change, afforestation can be helpful for climate change mitigation through the route of carbon sequestration. Afforestation can also improve the local climate through increased rainfall and by being a barrier against high winds. The additional trees can also prevent or reduce topsoil erosion (from water and wind), floods and landslides. Finally, additional trees can be a habitat for wildlife, and provide employment and wood products.[2]

An afforestation project in Rand Wood, Lincolnshire, England (this patch was open ground before)

search term: Drought Wikipedia Page

A drought is a period of drier-than-normal conditions.[1]: 1157 A drought can last for days, months or years. Drought often has large impacts on the ecosystems and agriculture of affected regions, and causes harm to the local economy.[2][3] Annual dry seasons in the tropics significantly increase the chances of a drought developing, with subsequent increased wildfire risks.[4] Heat waves can significantly worsen drought conditions by increasing evapotranspiration.[5] This dries out forests and other vegetation, and increases the amount of fuel for wildfires.[4][6]

Fields outside Benambra, Australia suffering from drought in 2006.

search term: Climate Variability Wikipedia Page

Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. Climate change may refer to any time in Earth's history, but the term is now commonly used to describe contemporary climate change, often popularly referred to as global warming. Since the Industrial Revolution, the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities.[1]

There is seasonal variability in how new high temperature records have outpaced new low temperature records.[11]

search term: Climate variability Wikipedia Page

Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. Climate change may refer to any time in Earth's history, but the term is now commonly used to describe contemporary climate change, often popularly referred to as global warming. Since the Industrial Revolution, the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities.[1]

There is seasonal variability in how new high temperature records have outpaced new low temperature records.[11]

search term: UNDP Wikipedia Page

The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)[note 1] is a United Nations agency tasked with helping countries eliminate poverty and achieve sustainable economic growth and human development. The UNDP emphasizes on developing local capacity towards long-term self-sufficiency and prosperity.[4]

search term: Ethiopia Wikipedia Page

Ethiopia,[d] officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country located in the Horn of Africa region of East Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the north, Djibouti to the northeast, Somalia to the east, Kenya to the south, South Sudan to the west, and Sudan to the northwest. Ethiopia covers a land area of 1,104,300 square kilometres (426,400 sq mi).[9] As of 2025[update], it has around 135 million inhabitants, making it the tenth-most populous country.[10] The national capital and largest city, Addis Ababa, lies several kilometres west of the East African Rift that splits the country into the African and Somali tectonic plates.[11]

A Homo sapiens idaltu hominid skull

search term: Green Climate Fund Wikipedia Page

The Green Climate Fund (GCF) is a fund for climate finance that was established within the framework of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Considered the world's largest fund of its kind, GCF's objective is to assist developing countries with climate change adaptation and mitigation activities.[1] The GCF is an operating entity of the financial mechanism of the UNFCCC. It is based in Songdo, Incheon, South Korea. It is governed by a Board of 24 members and supported by a Secretariat.

search term: Climate Risk Management Wikipedia Page

Climate risk management (CRM) is a term describing the strategies involved in reducing climate risk, through the work of various fields including climate change adaptation, disaster management and sustainable development. Major international conferences and workshops include: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, World Meteorological Organization - Living With Climate.

search term: rural households Wikipedia Page

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search term: Sahel Wikipedia Page

The Sahel region (/səˈhɛl/; from Arabic ساحل (sāḥil [ˈsaːħil]) 'coast, shore'), or Sahelian acacia savanna, is a biogeographical region in Africa. It is the transition zone between the more humid Sudanian savannas to its south and the drier Sahara to the north. The Sahel has a hot semi-arid climate and stretches across the southernmost latitudes of North Africa between the Atlantic Ocean and the Red Sea. Although geographically located in the tropics, the Sahel does not have a tropical climate.

The lush green of the Sahelian acacia savanna during the rainy summer season in Mali. Note the large baobab amongst the acacia.

search term: global warming levels Wikipedia Page

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search term: ustainability Wikipedia Page

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search term: interannual variability Wikipedia Page

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search term: Local Knowledge Wikipedia Page

Traditional knowledge (TK), indigenous knowledge (IK), folk knowledge, and local knowledge generally refers to knowledge systems embedded in the cultural traditions of regional, indigenous, or local communities.[1]

Tribal Colleges preserve and pass on both general knowledge and, through employing community Elders, traditional Indigenous knowledge. (Leech Lake Tribal College, Minnesota)

search term: global warming Wikipedia Page

Present-day climate change includes both global warming—the ongoing increase in global average temperature—and its wider effects on Earth's climate system. Climate change in a broader sense also includes previous long-term changes to Earth's climate. The current rise in global temperatures is driven by human activities, especially fossil fuel (coal, oil and natural gas) burning since the Industrial Revolution.[3][4] Fossil fuel use, deforestation, and some agricultural and industrial practices release greenhouse gases.[5] These gases absorb some of the heat that the Earth radiates after it warms from sunlight, warming the lower atmosphere. Carbon dioxide, the primary gas driving global warming, has increased in concentration by about 50% since the pre-industrial era to levels not seen for millions of years.[6]

Global surface temperature reconstruction over the past 2000 years using proxy data from tree rings, corals, and ice cores in blue.[42] Directly observed data is in red.[43]

search term: cholera Wikipedia Page

Cholera (/ˈkɒlərə/) is an infection of the small intestine by some strains of the bacterium Vibrio cholerae.[4][3] Symptoms may range from none, to mild, to severe.[3] The classic symptom is large amounts of watery diarrhea lasting a few days.[2] Vomiting and muscle cramps may also occur.[3] Diarrhea can be so severe that it leads within hours to severe dehydration and electrolyte imbalance.[2] This can in turn result in sunken eyes, cold or cyanotic[8] skin, decreased skin elasticity, wrinkling of the hands and feet, and, in severe cases, death.[5] Symptoms start two hours to five days after exposure.[3]

search term: smallholder farmers Wikipedia Page

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search term: rainfall Wikipedia Page

Rain is a form of precipitation where water droplets that have condensed from atmospheric water vapor fall by gravity. Rain is a major component of the water cycle and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth. It provides water for hydroelectric power plants, crop irrigation, and suitable conditions for many types of ecosystems.

Heavy rainfall on a roof

search term: climate variability Wikipedia Page

Climate variability includes all the variations in the climate that last longer than individual weather events, whereas the term climate change only refers to those variations that persist for a longer period of time, typically decades or more. Climate change may refer to any time in Earth's history, but the term is now commonly used to describe contemporary climate change, often popularly referred to as global warming. Since the Industrial Revolution, the climate has increasingly been affected by human activities.[1]

There is seasonal variability in how new high temperature records have outpaced new low temperature records.[11]

search term: North Asia Wikipedia Page

North Asia or Northern Asia (Russian: Северная Азия) is the northern region of Asia, which is defined in geographical terms and consists of three federal districts of Russia: Ural, Siberian, and the Far Eastern. North Asia is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to its north; by Eastern Europe to its west; by Central Asia and East Asia to its south; and by the Pacific Ocean and Northern America to its east. It covers an area of 13,100,000 square kilometres (5,100,000 sq mi), or 8.8% of Earth's total land area; and is the largest subregion of Asia by area, occupying approx. 29.4% of Asia's land area, but is also the least populated, with a population of around 37 million, accounting for merely 0.74% of Asia's population.

Map of Northern Asia in 1921

search term: West Asia Wikipedia Page

West Asia (also called Western Asia or Southwest Asia) is the westernmost region of Asia. As defined by most academics, UN bodies and other institutions, the subregion consists of Anatolia, the Arabian Peninsula, Iran, Mesopotamia, the Armenian highlands, the Levant, the island of Cyprus, the Sinai Peninsula and the South Caucasus.[4][5] The region is separated from Africa by the Isthmus of Suez in Egypt, and separated from Europe by the waterways of the Turkish Straits and the watershed of the Greater Caucasus. Central Asia lies to its northeast, while South Asia lies to its east. Twelve seas surround the region (clockwise): the Aegean Sea, the Sea of Marmara, the Black Sea, the Caspian Sea, the Persian Gulf, the Gulf of Oman, the Arabian Sea, the Gulf of Aden, the Red Sea, the Gulf of Aqaba, the Gulf of Suez, and the Mediterranean Sea. West Asia contains the majority of the similarly defined Middle East. The Middle East is a political term invented by Western geographers that has historically included various territories depending on political and historical context, while West Asia is a geographical term with more accuracy and consistency. It excludes most of Egypt and the northwestern part of Turkey, and includes the southern part of the Caucasus.

search term: CCA Wikipedia Page

search term: Korea Wikipedia Page

Korea[a] is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula,[b] Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in Asia in 1945, it has been politically divided at or near the 38th parallel between North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea; DPRK) and South Korea (Republic of Korea; ROK). Both countries proclaimed independence in 1948, and the two countries fought the Korean War from 1950 to 1953. The region is bordered by China to the north and Russia to the northeast, across the Amnok (Yalu) and Duman (Tumen) rivers, and is separated from Japan to the southeast by the Korea Strait.

7th century Tang dynasty painting of envoys from the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla

search term: Taiwan Wikipedia Page

Taiwan,[II][i] officially the Republic of China (ROC),[I] is a country[27] in East Asia.[l] The main island of Taiwan, also known as Formosa, lies between the East and South China Seas in the northwestern Pacific Ocean, with the People's Republic of China (PRC) to the northwest, Japan to the northeast, and the Philippines to the south. It has an area of 35,808 square kilometres (13,826 square miles), with mountain ranges dominating the eastern two-thirds and plains in the western third, where its highly urbanized population is concentrated. The combined territories under ROC control consist of 168 islands[m] in total covering 36,193 square kilometres (13,974 square miles).[17][39] The largest metropolitan area is formed by Taipei (the capital), New Taipei City, and Keelung. With around 23.9 million inhabitants, Taiwan is among the most densely populated countries.

2,300-year-old jade, unearthed at Beinan Cultural Park

search term: Republic of Korea Wikipedia Page

South Korea,[a] officially the Republic of Korea (ROK),[b] is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the southern half of the Korean Peninsula and borders North Korea along the Korean Demilitarized Zone, with the Yellow Sea to the west and the Sea of Japan to the east. Like North Korea, South Korea claims to be the sole legitimate government of the entire peninsula and adjacent islands. It has a population of about 52 million, of which half live in the Seoul metropolitan area, the ninth most populous metropolitan area in the world; other major cities include Busan, Daegu, and Incheon.

Changdeokgung, pictured in 2014, one of the Five Grand Palaces of Seoul built during the Joseon dynasty and a UNESCO World Heritage Site

search term: Asian countries Wikipedia Page

This is a list of sovereign states and dependent territories in Asia. It includes fully recognized states, states with limited but substantial international recognition, de facto states with little or no international recognition, and dependencies of both Asian and non-Asian states. In particular, it lists (i) 49 generally recognized sovereign states, all of which are members of the United Nations; (ii) two states with substantial but not general international recognition, one of which is a United Nations General Assembly non-member observer state; (iii) three largely unrecognized de facto states; and (iv) six dependent and other territories.

search term: South China Sea Wikipedia Page

The South China Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean. It is bounded in the north by South China, in the west by the Indochinese Peninsula, in the east by the islands of Taiwan and northwestern Philippines (mainly Luzon, Mindoro and Palawan), and in the south by Borneo, eastern Sumatra and the Bangka Belitung Islands, encompassing an area of around 3,500,000 km2 (1,400,000 sq mi). It communicates with the East China Sea via the Taiwan Strait, the Philippine Sea via the Luzon Strait, the Sulu Sea via the straits around Palawan, the Java Sea via the Karimata and Bangka Straits and directly with Gulf of Thailand. The Gulf of Tonkin is part of the South China Sea.

Sunset on the South China Sea off Mũi Né village on the south-east coast of Vietnam

search term: Integ Wikipedia Page

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search term: citizen science Wikipedia Page

The term citizen science (synonymous to terms like community science, crowd science, crowd-sourced science, civic science, participatory monitoring, or volunteer monitoring) is research conducted with participation from the general public, or amateur/nonprofessional researchers or participants of science, social science and many other disciplines.[1][2] There are variations in the exact definition of citizen science, with different individuals and organizations having their own specific interpretations of what citizen science encompasses.[1] Citizen science is used in a wide range of areas of study including ecology, biology and conservation, health and medical research, astronomy, media and communications and information science.[1][3]

A high school student contributes to the citizen science project EyeWire as part of a neurology course.

search term: UNESCAP Wikipedia Page

The United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP or UNESCAP) is one of the five regional commissions under the jurisdiction of the United Nations Economic and Social Council.[1][2] It was established in order to increase economic activity in Asia and the Far East, as well as to foster economic relations between the region and other areas of the world.[3]

search term: Mongolia Wikipedia Page

Mongolia[b] is a landlocked country in East Asia. Bordered by Russia to the north and China to the south and southeast, it covers an area of 1,564,116 square kilometres (603,909 square miles), making it the 18th-largest country in the world and the second largest landlocked country after Kazakhstan, as well as largest landlocked country that does not border an inland sea. With a population of 3.5 million, it is the world's most sparsely populated sovereign state. The country constitutes a significant portion of the Mongolian Plateau, and its natural environment is characterized by grassy steppe, mountains to the north and west, and the Gobi Desert to the south. Ulaanbaatar, the capital and largest city, is home to roughly half of the country's population.

7th-century Göktürk artifacts found 180 km (112 mi) from Ulaanbaatar

search term: Republic Wikipedia Page

A republic, based on the Latin phrase res publica ('public thing' or 'people's thing'), is a state in which political power rests with the public (people), typically through their representatives—in contrast to a monarchy.[1][2] Although a republic is most often a single sovereign state, subnational state entities that have governments that are republican in nature may be referred to as republics.

Sculpture of Cicero

search term: Afghanistan Wikipedia Page

Afghanistan,[e] officially the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan,[f] is a landlocked country located at the crossroads of Central and South Asia. It is bordered by Pakistan to the east and south,[g] Iran to the west, Turkmenistan to the northwest, Uzbekistan to the north, Tajikistan to the northeast, and China to the northeast and east. Occupying 652,864 square kilometers (252,072 sq mi) of land, the country is predominantly mountainous with plains in the north and the southwest, which are separated by the Hindu Kush mountain range. Kabul is the country's capital and largest city. Afghanistan's population is estimated to be between 36 and 50 million.[d]

Tents of Afghan nomads in the northern Badghis Province. Early peasant farming villages came into existence about 7,000 years ago.

search term: western North Pacific Wikipedia Page

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search term: ASEAN Wikipedia Page

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations,[d] commonly abbreviated as ASEAN,[e] is a regional grouping of 10 states in Southeast Asia that aims to promote economic and security cooperation among its ten members.[13] Together, its member states represent a population of more than 600 million people and a land area of over 4.5 million km2 (1.7 million sq mi).[14] The bloc generated a purchasing power parity (PPP) gross domestic product (GDP) of around US$10.2 trillion in 2022, constituting approximately 6.5% of global GDP (PPP).[9] ASEAN member states include some of the fastest growing economies in the world, and the institution plays an integral role in East Asian regionalism.[15]

Signing of the ASEAN Declaration by five Foreign Ministers in Bangkok on 8 August 1967

search term: disaster management Wikipedia Page

Emergency management (also Disaster management or Emergency Preparedness) is a science and a system charged with creating the framework within which communities reduce vulnerability to hazards and cope with disasters.[1] Emergency management, despite its name, does not actually focus on the management of emergencies; emergencies can be understood as minor events with limited impacts and are managed through the day-to-day functions of a community. Instead, emergency management focuses on the management of disasters, which are events that produce more impacts than a community can handle on its own.[2] The management of disasters tends to require some combination of activity from individuals and households, organizations, local, and/or higher levels of government. Although many different terminologies exist globally, the activities of emergency management can be generally categorized into preparedness, response, mitigation, and recovery, although other terms such as disaster risk reduction and prevention are also common. The outcome of emergency management is to prevent disasters and where this is not possible, to reduce their harmful impacts.

A mobile emergency operations center, in this case operated by the Air National Guard

search term: BDP 2100 Wikipedia Page

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search term: socioeconomic changes Wikipedia Page

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search term: Hindu Kush Himalaya Wikipedia Page

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search term: Sea Wikipedia Page

A sea is a large body of salt water. There are particular seas and the sea. The sea commonly refers to the ocean, the interconnected body of seawaters that spans most of Earth. Particular seas are either marginal seas, second-order sections of the oceanic sea (e.g. the Mediterranean Sea), or certain large, nearly landlocked bodies of water.

Atlantic Ocean near the Faroe Islands

search term: urban agglomerations Wikipedia Page

An urban area[a] is a human settlement with a high population density and an infrastructure of built environment. Urban areas originate through urbanization, and researchers categorize them as cities, towns, conurbations or suburbs. In urbanism, the term "urban area" contrasts to rural areas such as villages and hamlets; in urban sociology or urban anthropology, it often contrasts with natural environment.

Skyline of Seoul at night

search term: agriculture sector Wikipedia Page

In economics, the primary sector is the economic sector which comprises industry involved in the extraction and production of raw materials, such as farming, logging, fishing, forestry and mining.[1][2][3] The primary sector tends to make up a larger portion of the economy in developing countries than it does in developed countries. For example, in 2018, agriculture, forestry, and fishing comprised more than 15% of GDP in sub-Saharan Africa[4] but less than 1% of GDP in North America.[5]

search term: Tajikistan Wikipedia Page

Tajikistan,[b] officially the Republic of Tajikistan,[c] is a landlocked country in Central Asia. Dushanbe is its capital and most populous city. Tajikistan borders Afghanistan to the south, Uzbekistan to the west, Kyrgyzstan to the north, and China to the east and is narrowly separated from Pakistan by Afghanistan's Wakhan Corridor. It has a population of more than 10.7 million people.[13][14]

search term: HKH region Wikipedia Page

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search term: South Asian countries Wikipedia Page

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search term: Saudi Arabia Wikipedia Page

Saudi Arabia,[d] officially the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA),[e] is a country in West Asia. Located in the center of the Middle East, it covers the bulk of the Arabian Peninsula and has a land area of about 2,150,000 km2 (830,000 sq mi), making it the fifth-largest country in Asia, the largest in the Middle East, and the twelfth-largest in the world. It is bordered by the Red Sea to the west; Jordan, Iraq, and Kuwait to the north; the Persian Gulf, Bahrain, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates to the east; Oman to the southeast; and Yemen to the south. The Gulf of Aqaba in the northwest separates Saudi Arabia from Egypt and Israel.[15][16] Saudi Arabia is the only country with a coastline along both the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf, and most of its terrain consists of arid desert, lowland, steppe, and mountains. The capital and largest city is Riyadh; other major cities include Jeddah and the two holiest cities in Islam, Mecca and Medina. With a population of almost 32.2 million, Saudi Arabia is the fourth most populous country in the Arab world.

search term: preparedness Wikipedia Page

Preparedness is a set of actions that are taken as precautionary measures in the face of potential disasters. Being prepared helps in achieving goals and in avoiding and mitigating negative outcomes.

search term: Central Siberia Wikipedia Page

The Central Siberian Plateau (Russian: Среднесибирское плоскогорье, romanized: Srednesibirskoye ploskogorye; Yakut: Орто Сибиир хаптал хайалаах сирэ, romanized: Orto Sibîr xaptal xayalâx sire) is a vast mountainous area in Siberia, one of the Great Russian Regions.

search term: Kazakhstan Wikipedia Page

Kazakhstan,[d] officially the Republic of Kazakhstan,[e] is a landlocked country primarily in Central Asia, with a portion in Eastern Europe.[f] It borders Russia to the north and west, China to the east, Kyrgyzstan to the southeast, Uzbekistan to the south, and Turkmenistan to the southwest, with a coastline along the Caspian Sea. Its capital is Astana, while the largest city and leading cultural and commercial hub is Almaty. It used to be the Capital city from 1929 to 1997, then later the Capital was moved from Almaty to Akmola, which is now known as Astana.

search term: Uzbekistan Wikipedia Page

Uzbekistan,[a] officially the Republic of Uzbekistan,[b] is a doubly landlocked country located in Central Asia. It is surrounded by five countries: Kazakhstan to the north, Kyrgyzstan to the northeast, Tajikistan to the southeast, Afghanistan to the south, and Turkmenistan to the southwest, making it one of only two doubly landlocked countries on Earth, the other being Liechtenstein. The country has a population of more than 37.6 million, making it the most populous country in Central Asia. Uzbekistan is a member of the Organization of Turkic States. Uzbek, spoken by the Uzbek people, is the official language and spoken by the majority of its inhabitants, while Russian and Tajik are significant minority languages. Islam is the predominant religion, and most Uzbeks are Sunni Muslims.[17]

search term: water conservation Wikipedia Page

Water conservation aims to sustainably manage the natural resource of fresh water, protect the hydrosphere, and meet current and future human demand. Water conservation makes it possible to avoid water scarcity. It covers all the policies, strategies and activities to reach these aims. Population, household size and growth and affluence all affect how much water is used.

United States 1960 postal stamp advocating water conservation

search term: drought risk Wikipedia Page

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search term: Ho Chi Minh City Wikipedia Page

Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC; Vietnamese: Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh,
IPA: [tʰan˨˩ fow˦˥ how˨˩ cɪj˦˥ mɨn˧˧]), formerly known as Saigon (Vietnamese: Sài Gòn, IPA: [saːj˨˩ ɣɔŋ˨˩]), is the most populous city in Vietnam with a population of 14,002,598 in 2025.[4]

Saigon is written here as 柴棍 along with other Southern Vietnamese cities. (On the left of the page, first row after "城庯三")

search term: adverse selection Wikipedia Page

In economics, insurance, and risk management, adverse selection is a market situation where asymmetric information results in a party taking advantage of undisclosed information to benefit more from a contract or trade.

The spiralling effect of how adverse selection worsens the quality of goods in the market

search term: Hindu Kush Himalaya Assessment Wikipedia Page

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search term: Himalaya Wikipedia Page

The Himalayas, or Himalaya (/ˌhɪməˈleɪ.ə, hɪˈmɑːləjə/ HIM-ə-LAY-ə, hih-MAH-lə-yə)[b], is a mountain range in Asia, separating the plains of the Indian subcontinent from the Tibetan Plateau. The range has some of the Earth's highest peaks, including the highest, Mount Everest. More than 100 peaks exceeding elevations of 7,200 m (23,600 ft) above sea level lie in the Himalayas.

search term: rice production Wikipedia Page

Rice is a cereal grain and in its domesticated form is the staple food of over half of the world's population, particularly in Asia and Africa. Rice is the seed of the grass species Oryza sativa (Asian rice)—or, much less commonly, Oryza glaberrima (African rice). Asian rice was domesticated in China some 13,500 to 8,200 years ago; African rice was domesticated in Africa about 3,000 years ago. Rice has become commonplace in many cultures worldwide; in 2023, 800 million tons were produced, placing it third after sugarcane and maize. Only some 8% of rice is traded internationally. China, India, and Indonesia are the largest consumers of rice. A substantial amount of the rice produced in developing nations is lost after harvest through factors such as poor transport and storage. Rice yields can be reduced by pests including insects, rodents, and birds, as well as by weeds, and by diseases such as rice blast. Traditional rice polycultures such as rice-duck farming, and modern integrated pest management seek to control damage from pests in a sustainable way.

Rice plant (Oryza sativa) with branched panicles containing many grains on each stem

search term: mangrove restoration Wikipedia Page

Mangrove restoration is the regeneration of mangrove forest ecosystems in areas where they have previously existed. Restoration can be defined as "the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed."[1] Mangroves can be found throughout coastal wetlands of tropical and subtropical environments. Mangroves provide essential ecosystem services such as water filtration, aquatic nurseries, medicinal materials, food, and lumber.[2] Additionally, mangroves play a vital role in climate change mitigation through carbon sequestration and protection from coastal erosion, sea level rise, and storm surges. Mangrove habitat is declining due to human activities such as clearing land for industry and climate change.[2][3] Mangrove restoration is critical as mangrove habitat continues to rapidly decline. Different methods have been used to restore mangrove habitat, such as looking at historical topography, or mass seed dispersal.[4][5] Fostering the long-term success of mangrove restoration is attainable by involving local communities through stakeholder engagement.[6]

Mangrove replanting in Mayotte.

search term: HMA Wikipedia Page

search term: Inner Mongolia Wikipedia Page

Inner Mongolia,[a] officially the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region,[b] is an autonomous region of China. Its border includes two-thirds of the length of China's border with the country of Mongolia. Inner Mongolia also accounts for a small section of China's border with Russia (Zabaykalsky Krai). Its capital is Hohhot; other major cities include Baotou, Chifeng, Tongliao and Ordos.

Persian miniature depicting Genghis Khan entering Beijing

search term: Lebanon Wikipedia Page

Lebanon,[c] officially the Republic of Lebanon,[d] is a country in the Levant region of West Asia. Situated at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian Peninsula,[14] it is bordered by Syria to the north and east, Israel to the south, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west; Cyprus lies a short distance from the coastline. Lebanon has a population of more than five million and an area of 10,452 square kilometres (4,036 sq mi). Beirut is the country's capital and largest city.

search term: wind speed Wikipedia Page

In meteorology, wind speed, or wind flow speed, is a fundamental atmospheric quantity caused by air moving from high to low pressure, usually due to changes in temperature. Wind speed is now commonly measured with an anemometer.

An anemometer is commonly used to measure wind speed.

search term: developing Asia Wikipedia Page

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search term: IDMC Wikipedia Page

search term: Kyrgyzstan Wikipedia Page

Kyrgyzstan,[a] officially the Kyrgyz Republic,[b][11] is a landlocked country in Central Asia, lying in the Tian Shan and Pamir mountain ranges. It is bordered by Kazakhstan to the north, Uzbekistan to the west, Tajikistan to the south, and China to the east and southeast.[12][13][14] Bishkek is the capital and largest city. Ethnic Kyrgyz make up the majority of the country's over 7 million people, followed by significant minorities of Uzbeks and Russians.[15]

Tian Shan Mountains in East Kyrgyzstan

search term: Asia Pacific region Wikipedia Page

The Asia-Pacific (APAC), also known as the Indo-Pacific, is a major geopolitical and economic region of the world adjoining the western Pacific Ocean and comprising the part of the Old World located outside the EMEA region. The region's precise boundaries vary depending on context, but countries and territories in the Far East (East Asia, North Asia, and Southeast Asia) and Oceania are often included while countries in Central Asia and South Asia are also sometimes included. In a wider context, even countries and territories in West Asia and the Pacific-adjoining countries in the Americas can be included. For example, the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) includes five economies (Canada, Chile, Mexico, Peru, and the United States) in the New World (more standardly referred to as the Western Hemisphere). The term has become popular since the late 1980s in commerce, finance, and politics. Despite the heterogeneity of the regions' economies, most individual nations within the zone are emerging markets experiencing significant growth. Sometimes, the notion of "Asia-Pacific excluding Japan" (APEJ) is considered useful.[1][2]

Asia and the Pacific region, according to the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (ESCAP)

search term: Russian Far East Wikipedia Page

The Russian Far East (Russian: Дальний Восток России,
IPA: [ˈdalʲnʲɪj vɐˈstok rɐˈsʲiɪ]) is a region in North Asia. It is the easternmost part of Russia and the Asian continent, and is coextensive with the Far Eastern Federal District, which encompasses the area between Lake Baikal and the Pacific Ocean. The area's largest city is Khabarovsk, followed by Vladivostok. The region shares land borders with the countries of Mongolia, China, and North Korea to its south, as well as maritime boundaries with Japan to its southeast, and with the United States along the Bering Strait to its northeast.

search term: Korean Peninsula Wikipedia Page

Korea[a] is a peninsular region in East Asia consisting of the Korean Peninsula,[b] Jeju Island, and smaller islands. Since the end of World War II in Asia in 1945, it has been politically divided at or near the 38th parallel between North Korea (Democratic People's Republic of Korea; DPRK) and South Korea (Republic of Korea; ROK). Both countries proclaimed independence in 1948, and the two countries fought the Korean War from 1950 to 1953. The region is bordered by China to the north and Russia to the northeast, across the Amnok (Yalu) and Duman (Tumen) rivers, and is separated from Japan to the southeast by the Korea Strait.

7th century Tang dynasty painting of envoys from the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Baekje, Goguryeo, and Silla

search term: pine wilt disease Wikipedia Page

Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, commonly known as pine wood nematode or pine wilt nematode (PWN), is a species of nematode that infects trees in the Pinus genus of coniferous trees and causes the disease pine wilt.[1][2] While native to North America, it spread in the early 20th century to Japan and in the latter half of the century to other areas of Asia, including China, Taiwan, and Korea, as well as to Europe, including Portugal and Spain.[2][3]

search term: Oman Wikipedia Page

Oman,[b] officially the Sultanate of Oman,[c] is a country located on the southeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula in West Asia and the Middle East. It shares land borders with Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. Oman's coastline faces the Arabian Sea to the southeast and the Gulf of Oman on the northeast. The exclaves of Madha and Musandam are surrounded by the United Arab Emirates on their land borders, while Musandam's coastal boundaries are formed by the Strait of Hormuz and the Gulf of Oman. The capital and largest city is Muscat. With a population of approximately 5.46 million and an area of 309,500 km2 (119,500 sq mi), Oman is the 123rd most-populous country.[10]

search term: Eastern Asia Wikipedia Page

East Asia is a geocultural region of Asia. It includes China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan,[2][3] plus two special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau. The economies of China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan are among the world's largest and most prosperous. East Asia borders North Asia to the north, Southeast Asia to the south, South Asia to the southwest, and Central Asia to the west. To its east is the Pacific Ocean.

Map showing the boundary of the 13th-century Mongol Empire compared to today's Mongols

search term: outheast Asia Wikipedia Page

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search term: Xinjiang Wikipedia Page

Xinjiang,[a] officially the Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region (XUAR),[11][12] is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China (PRC), in the northwest of the country at the crossroads of Central Asia and East Asia. The largest province-level division of China by area and the 8th-largest country subdivision in the world, Xinjiang spans over 1.6 million square kilometres (620,000 sq mi) and has about 25 million inhabitants.[1][13] Xinjiang borders the countries of Afghanistan, India, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia, Pakistan, Russia, and Tajikistan. The rugged Karakoram, Kunlun, and Tian Shan mountain ranges occupy much of Xinjiang's borders, as well as its western and southern regions. The Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract regions are claimed by India but administered by China.[14][15][16] Xinjiang also borders the Tibet Autonomous Region and the provinces of Gansu and Qinghai. The best-known route of the historic Silk Road ran through the territory from the east to its northwestern border.

Dzungaria (red) and the Tarim Basin / Altishahr (blue)

search term: vulnerability assessment Wikipedia Page

A vulnerability assessment is the process of identifying, quantifying, and prioritizing (or ranking) the vulnerabilities in a system. Examples of systems for which vulnerability assessments are performed include, but are not limited to, information technology systems, energy supply systems, water supply systems, transportation systems, and communication systems. Such assessments may be conducted on behalf of a range of different organizations, from small businesses up to large regional infrastructures. Vulnerability from the perspective of disaster management means assessing the threats from potential hazards to the population and to infrastructure. It may be conducted in the political, social, economic or environmental fields.

search term: Guangzhou Wikipedia Page

Guangzhou, also romanised as Canton and Kwangchow,[a] is the capital and largest city of the Guangdong province in southern China.[8] Located on the Pearl River about 120 km (75 mi) northwest of Hong Kong and 145 km (90 mi) north of Macau, Guangzhou has a history of over 2,200 years and was a major terminus of the Silk Road.[9]

Portrait of the Grotto of the Five Immortals, the Taoist temple around the five stones which gave Guangzhou its nickname "The City of Rams"

search term: Chinese cities Wikipedia Page

According to the administrative divisions of the People's Republic of China, there are three levels of cities: provincial-level cities[1] (consisting of directly-administered municipalities and the special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macau[2][3]), prefecture-level cities, and county-level cities. As of January 2024, the PRC has a total of 707 cities: 4 municipalities, 2 SARs, 293 prefecture-level cities (including the 15 sub-provincial cities) and 408 county-level cities (including the 38 sub-prefectural cities and 12 XXPC cities). This list does not include any cities in the disputed Taiwan Province and portions of Fujian Province, which are claimed by the PRC under the One China Policy, as these areas are controlled by the Republic of China (see the List of cities in Taiwan).

Cities in the People's Republic of China

search term: forest governance Wikipedia Page

Forest management is a branch of forestry concerned with overall administrative, legal, economic, and social aspects, as well as scientific and technical aspects, such as silviculture, forest protection, and regulation. This includes management for timber, aesthetics, recreation, urban values, water, wildlife, inland and nearshore fisheries, wood products, plant genetic resources, and other forest resource values.[1] Management objectives can be for conservation, utilisation, or a mixture of the two. Techniques include timber extraction, planting and replanting of different species, building and maintenance of roads and pathways through forests, and preventing fire.

Sustainable forest management balances local socioeconomic, cultural, and ecological needs and constraints.

search term: Asian Development Bank Wikipedia Page

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) is a regional development bank to promote social and economic development in Asia. The bank is headquartered in the city of Mandaluyong, in Metro Manila, Philippines, and maintains 31 field offices around the world.[3][4]

search term: Twitter Wikipedia Page

Community Notes algorithm: Apache-2.0[6]
Emojis: MIT, CC-BY-4.0[7]

Other content and services:

search term: crop insurance Wikipedia Page

Crop insurance is insurance purchased by agricultural producers and subsidized by a country's government to protect against either the loss of their crops due to natural disasters, such as hail, drought, and floods ("crop-yield insurance"), or the loss of revenue due to declines in the prices of agricultural commodities ("crop-revenue insurance").

search term: Social protection Wikipedia Page

Social protection, as defined by the United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, is concerned with preventing, managing, and overcoming situations that adversely affect people's well-being.[1] Social protection consists of policies and programs designed to reduce poverty and vulnerability by promoting efficient labour markets, diminishing people's exposure to risks,[2] and enhancing their capacity to manage economic and social risks, such as unemployment, exclusion, sickness, disability, and old age.[3] An emerging approach within social protection frameworks is Adaptive Social Protection, which integrates disaster risk management and climate change adaptation to strengthen resilience against shocks.It is one of the targets of the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 10 aimed at promoting greater equality.[4]

Social Protection Staircase

search term: SP programmes Wikipedia Page

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search term: Northeast Asia Wikipedia Page

Northeast Asia or Northeastern Asia is a geographical subregion of Asia. Its northeastern landmass and islands are bounded by the North Pacific Ocean.

search term: Sea Level Rise Wikipedia Page

The sea level has been rising since the end of the last ice age, which was around 20,000 years ago.[3] Between 1901 and 2018, the average sea level rose by 15–25 cm (6–10 in), with an increase of 2.3 mm (0.091 in) per year since the 1970s.[4]: 1216 This was faster than the sea level had ever risen over at least the past 3,000 years.[4]: 1216 The rate accelerated to 4.62 mm (0.182 in)/yr for the decade 2013–2022.[5] Climate change due to human activities is the main cause.[6]: 5, 8 Between 1993 and 2018, melting ice sheets and glaciers accounted for 44% of sea level rise, with another 42% resulting from thermal expansion of water.[7]: 1576

The global average sea level has risen about 25 centimetres (9.8 in) since 1880.[1]

search term: Central Asia Wikipedia Page

Central Asia is a region of Asia consisting of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan.[4] The countries as a group are also colloquially referred to as the "-stans" as all have names ending with the Persian suffix "-stan" (meaning 'land') in both respective native languages and most other languages. The region is bounded by the Caspian Sea to the southwest, European Russia to the northwest, China and Mongolia to the east,[5] Afghanistan and Iran to the south, and Siberia to the north. Together, the five Central Asian countries have a total population of around 76 million.

search term: Japan Wikipedia Page

Japan[a] is an island country in East Asia. Located in the Pacific Ocean off the northeast coast of the Asian mainland, it is bordered to the west by the Sea of Japan and extends from the Sea of Okhotsk in the north to the East China Sea in the south. The Japanese archipelago consists of four major islands alongside 14,121 smaller islands. Divided into 47 administrative prefectures and eight traditional regions, about 75% of the country's terrain is mountainous and heavily forested, concentrating its agriculture and highly urbanized population along its eastern coastal plains. With a population of over 123 million as of 2025, it is the 11th most populous country. The country's capital and largest city is Tokyo.

search term: Iran Wikipedia Page

Iran,[b] officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI)[c] and also known as Persia,[d] is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the northeast, Afghanistan to the east, Pakistan to the southeast, and the Gulf of Oman and the Persian Gulf to the south. With a population of 92 million,[8] Iran ranks 17th globally in both geographic size and population and is the sixth-largest country in Asia. Iran is divided into five regions with 31 provinces. Tehran is the nation's capital, largest city, and financial center.

Map of West Asia in 1872, with "Iran or Persia" (ruled by the Qajar dynasty) shaded in pink.

search term: Asia Wikipedia Page

Asia (/ˈeɪʒə/ ⓘ AY-zhə,
UK also /ˈeɪʃə/ AY-shə) is the largest continent[note 1][10][11] in the world by both land area and population.[11] It covers an area of more than 44 million square kilometres,[note 2] about 30% of Earth's total land area and 8% of Earth's total surface area. The continent, which has long been home to the majority of the human population,[12] was the site of many of the first civilisations. Its 4.7 billion people constitute roughly 60% of the world's population.

search term: East Asia Wikipedia Page

East Asia is a geocultural region of Asia. It includes China, Japan, Mongolia, North Korea, South Korea, and Taiwan,[2][3] plus two special administrative regions of China, Hong Kong and Macau. The economies of China, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan are among the world's largest and most prosperous. East Asia borders North Asia to the north, Southeast Asia to the south, South Asia to the southwest, and Central Asia to the west. To its east is the Pacific Ocean.

Map showing the boundary of the 13th-century Mongol Empire compared to today's Mongols

search term: dust storms Wikipedia Page

A dust storm, also called a sandstorm, is a meteorological phenomenon common in arid and semi-arid regions.[1] Dust storms arise when a gust front or other strong wind blows loose sand and dirt from a dry surface. Fine particles are transported by saltation and suspension, a process that moves soil from one place and deposits it in another. These storms can reduce visibility, disrupt transportation, and pose serious health risks. Over time, repeated dust storms can reduce agricultural productivity and contribute to desertification.

An aerial view of a sandstorm over the Namib Desert

search term: adaptation costs Wikipedia Page

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search term: South Asia Wikipedia Page

South Asia is the southern subregion of Asia that is defined in both geographical and ethnic-cultural terms. South Asia, with a population of 2.04 billion, contains a quarter (25%) of the world's population. As commonly conceptualised, the modern states of South Asia include Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, the Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, with Afghanistan also often included, which may otherwise be classified as part of Central Asia.[6][7] South Asia borders East Asia to the northeast, Central Asia to the northwest, West Asia to the west and Southeast Asia to the east. Apart from Southeast Asia, Maritime South Asia is the only subregion of Asia that lies partly within the Southern Hemisphere. The British Indian Ocean Territory and two out of 26 atolls of the Maldives in South Asia lie entirely within the Southern Hemisphere. Topographically, it is dominated by the Indian subcontinent and is bounded by the Indian Ocean in the south, and the Himalayas, Karakoram, and Pamir Mountains in the north.[8]

search term: Sri Lanka Wikipedia Page

Sri Lanka,[a] officially the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, also known historically as Ceylon,[b] is an island country in South Asia. It lies in the Indian Ocean, southwest of the Bay of Bengal, separated from the Indian peninsula by the Gulf of Mannar and the Palk Strait. It shares a maritime border with the Maldives in the southwest and India in the northwest, and it lies across the Bay of Bengal from Bangladesh and Myanmar in the northeast and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the east. Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte is the legislative capital of Sri Lanka, while the largest city, Colombo, is the administrative and judicial capital which is the nation's political, financial and cultural centre. Kandy is the second-largest urban area and also the capital of the last native kingdom of Sri Lanka. The most spoken language Sinhala, is spoken by the majority of the population (approximately 17 million). Tamil is also spoken by approximately five million people, making it the second most-spoken language in Sri Lanka.

search term: Southeast Asia Wikipedia Page

Southeast Asia[b] is the geographical southeastern region of Asia, consisting of the regions that are situated south of China, east of the Indian subcontinent, and northwest of mainland Australia, which is part of Oceania.[5] Southeast Asia is bordered to the north by East Asia, to the west by South Asia and the Bay of Bengal, to the east by Oceania and the Pacific Ocean, and to the south by Australia and the Indian Ocean. Apart from the British Indian Ocean Territory and two out of 26 atolls of the Maldives in South Asia, Maritime Southeast Asia is the only other subregion of Asia that lies partly within the Southern Hemisphere. Mainland Southeast Asia is entirely in the Northern Hemisphere. Timor-Leste and the southern portion of Indonesia are the parts of Southeast Asia that lie south of the equator.

search term: Philippines Wikipedia Page

in the Southeast Asia

search term: China Wikipedia Page

China,[h] officially the People's Republic of China (PRC),[i] is a country in East Asia. With a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the second-most populous country after India, representing 17% of the world population. China borders fourteen countries by land[j] across an area of 9.6 million square kilometers (3,700,000 sq mi), making it the third-largest country by area.[k] The country is divided into 33 province-level divisions: 22 provinces,[l] 5 autonomous regions, 4 municipalities, and 2 semi-autonomous special administrative regions. Beijing is the capital, while Shanghai is the most populous city by urban area and largest financial center.

search term: Asian cities Wikipedia Page

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search term: remote sensing Wikipedia Page

Remote sensing is the acquisition of information about an object or phenomenon without making physical contact with the object, in contrast to in situ or on-site observation. The term is applied especially to acquiring information about Earth and other planets. Remote sensing is used in numerous fields, including geophysics, geography, land surveying and most Earth science disciplines (e.g. exploration geophysics, hydrology, ecology, meteorology, oceanography, glaciology, geology). It also has military, intelligence, commercial, economic, planning, and humanitarian applications, among others.

Synthetic aperture radar image of Death Valley colored using polarimetry

search term: Thailand Wikipedia Page

Thailand,[iii] officially the Kingdom of Thailand,[iv] and formerly known as Siam until 1939,[v] is a country located in mainland Southeast Asia. It shares land borders with Myanmar to the west and northwest, Laos to the east and northeast, Cambodia to the southeast, and Malaysia to the south. Its maritime boundaries include the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman Sea, as well as maritime borders with Vietnam, Indonesia, and India. Thailand has a population of nearly 66 million people[11], covers an area of approximately 513,115 km² (198,115 sq mi).[12] The country's capital and largest city is Bangkok.[13]

SPPM Mongkut Rex Siamensium, King Mongkut's signature

search term: risk perception Wikipedia Page

Risk perception is the subjective judgement that people make about the characteristics and severity of a risk.[1][2][3] Risk perceptions often differ from statistical assessments of risk since they are affected by a wide range of affective (emotions, feelings, moods, etc.), cognitive (gravity of events, media coverage, risk-mitigating measures, etc.), contextual (framing of risk information, availability of alternative information sources, etc.), and individual (personality traits, previous experience, age, etc.) factors.[3] Several theories have been proposed to explain why different people make different estimates of the dangerousness of risks.[4][5] Three major families of theory have been developed: psychology approaches (heuristics and cognitive), anthropology/sociology approaches (cultural theory) and interdisciplinary approaches (social amplification of risk framework).

Factors of risk perceptions

search term: Myanmar Wikipedia Page

Myanmar,[f] officially the Republic of the Union of Myanmar[g] and also referred to as Burma (the official English name until 1989), is a country in northwest Southeast Asia. It is the largest country by area in Mainland Southeast Asia and has a population of about 55 million. It is bordered by India and Bangladesh to the northwest, China to the northeast, Laos and Thailand to the east and southeast, and the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal to the south and southwest. The country's capital city is Naypyidaw, while its largest city is Yangon (formerly Rangoon).[17]

Pyu city-states, c.8th century

search term: Tibetan Plateau Wikipedia Page

The Tibetan Plateau,[a] also known as the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau[b] or Qingzang Plateau,[c] is a vast elevated plateau located at the intersection of Central, South, and East Asia.[d] Geographically, it is located to the north of Himalayas and the Indian subcontinent, and to the south of Tarim Basin and Mongolian Plateau. Geopolitically, it covers most of the Tibet Autonomous Region, most of Qinghai, western half of Sichuan, Southern Gansu provinces, southern Xinjiang province in Western China, Bhutan, the Indian regions of Ladakh and Lahaul and Spiti (Himachal Pradesh) as well as Gilgit-Baltistan in Pakistan, northwestern Nepal, eastern Tajikistan and southern Kyrgyzstan. It stretches approximately 1,000 kilometres (620 mi) north to south and 2,500 kilometres (1,600 mi) east to west. It is the world's highest and largest plateau above sea level, with an area of 2,500,000 square kilometres (970,000 sq mi).[15] With an average elevation exceeding 4,500 metres (14,800 ft)[citation needed] and being surrounded by imposing mountain ranges that harbor the world's two highest summits, Mount Everest and K2, the Tibetan Plateau is often referred to as "the Roof of the World".[16]

search term: Pakistan Wikipedia Page

Pakistan,[e] officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan,[f] is a country in South Asia. It is the fifth-most populous country, with a population of over 241.5 million,[c] having the second-largest Muslim population as of 2023. Islamabad is the nation's capital, while Karachi is its largest city and financial centre. Pakistan is the 33rd-largest country by area. Bounded by the Arabian Sea on the south, the Gulf of Oman on the southwest, and the Sir Creek on the southeast, it shares land borders with India to the east; Afghanistan to the west; Iran to the southwest; and China to the northeast. It shares a maritime border with Oman in the Gulf of Oman, and is separated from Tajikistan in the northwest by Afghanistan's narrow Wakhan Corridor.

search term: Malaysia Wikipedia Page

Malaysia[d] is a country in Southeast Asia. A federal constitutional monarchy, it consists of 13 states and three federal territories, separated by the South China Sea into two regions: Peninsular Malaysia on the Indochinese Peninsula and East Malaysia on the island of Borneo. Peninsular Malaysia shares land and maritime borders with Thailand, as well as maritime borders with Singapore, Vietnam, and Indonesia; East Malaysia shares land borders with Brunei and Indonesia, and maritime borders with the Philippines and Vietnam. Kuala Lumpur is the country's national capital, largest city, and the seat of the legislative branch of the federal government, while Putrajaya is the federal administrative capital, representing the seat of both the executive branch (the Cabinet, federal ministries, and federal agencies) and the judicial branch of the federal government. With a population of over 34 million, it is the world's 42nd-most populous country.

The Malacca Sultanate played a major role in spreading Islam throughout the Malay Archipelago.

search term: Vietnam Wikipedia Page

Vietnam,[e][f] officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (SRV),[g][h] is a country at the eastern edge of Mainland Southeast Asia. With an area of about 331,000 square kilometres (128,000 sq mi) and a population of over 100 million, it is the world's 15th-most populous country. One of two communist states in Southeast Asia,[i] Vietnam is bordered by China to the north, Laos and Cambodia to the west, the Gulf of Thailand to the southwest, and the South China Sea to the east; it also shares maritime borders with Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia to the south and southwest, the Philippines to the east, and China to the northeast. Its capital is Hanoi, while its largest city is Ho Chi Minh City.

Người Việt 𠊛越 written in chữ Nôm

search term: Singapore Wikipedia Page

Singapore,[f] officially the Republic of Singapore, is an island country and city-state in Southeast Asia. The country's territory comprises one main island, 63 satellite islands and islets, and one outlying islet. It is about one degree of latitude (137 kilometres or 85 miles) north of the equator, off the southern tip of the Malay Peninsula, bordering the Strait of Malacca to the west, the Singapore Strait to the south along with the Riau Islands in Indonesia, the South China Sea to the east, and the Straits of Johor along with the State of Johor in Malaysia to the north.

Letter from William Farquhar to Sultan Muhammad Kanzul Alam, the 21st Sultan of Brunei, dated 28 November 1819. In the first line, Farquhar mentions that Sultan Hussein Shah and Temenggong Abdul Rahman allowed the British East India Company to establish a factory in Singapore on 6 February 1819.[38][39]

search term: Hazards Wikipedia Page

A hazard is a potential source of harm. Substances, events, or circumstances can constitute hazards when their nature would potentially allow them to cause damage to health, life, property, or any other interest of value. The probability of that harm being realized in a specific incident, combined with the magnitude of potential harm, make up its risk. This term is often used synonymously in colloquial speech.

A hazard pictogram to indicate a hazard from a flammable substance.

search term: India Wikipedia Page

India, officially the Republic of India,[j][20] is a country in South Asia. It is the seventh-largest country by area; the most populous country since 2023;[21] and, since its independence in 1947, the world's most populous democracy.[22][23][24] Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south, the Arabian Sea on the southwest, and the Bay of Bengal on the southeast, it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west;[k] China, Nepal, and Bhutan to the north; and Bangladesh and Myanmar to the east. In the Indian Ocean, India is near Sri Lanka and the Maldives; its Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Myanmar, Thailand, and Indonesia.

search term: cyclones Wikipedia Page

In meteorology, a cyclone (/ˈsaɪ.kloʊn/) is a large air mass that rotates around a strong center of low atmospheric pressure, counterclockwise in the Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere as viewed from above (opposite to an anticyclone).[1][2] Cyclones are characterized by inward-spiraling winds that rotate about a zone of low pressure.[3][4]

An extratropical cyclone near Iceland

search term: Persian Gulf Wikipedia Page

The Persian Gulf,[a] sometimes called the Arabian Gulf,[b] is a mediterranean sea in West Asia. The body of water is an extension of the Arabian Sea and the larger Indian Ocean located between Iran and the Arabian Peninsula.[1][2] It is connected to the Gulf of Oman in the east by the Strait of Hormuz. The river delta of the Shatt al-Arab forms the northwest shoreline.

search term: South Korea Wikipedia Page

South Korea,[a] officially the Republic of Korea (ROK),[b] is a country in East Asia. It constitutes the southern half of the Korean Peninsula and borders North Korea along the Korean Demilitarized Zone, with the Yellow Sea to the west and the Sea of Japan to the east. Like North Korea, South Korea claims to be the sole legitimate government of the entire peninsula and adjacent islands. It has a population of about 52 million, of which half live in the Seoul metropolitan area, the ninth most populous metropolitan area in the world; other major cities include Busan, Daegu, and Incheon.

Changdeokgung, pictured in 2014, one of the Five Grand Palaces of Seoul built during the Joseon dynasty and a UNESCO World Heritage Site

search term: Russia Wikipedia Page

Russia,[b] or the Russian Federation,[c] is a country in Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the largest country in the world, spanning eleven time zones and sharing land borders with fourteen countries.[d] With over 140 million people, Russia is the most populous country in Europe and the ninth-most populous in the world. It is a highly urbanised country, with sixteen of its urban areas having more than 1 million inhabitants. Moscow, the most populous metropolitan area in Europe, is the capital and largest city of Russia; Saint Petersburg is its second-largest city and cultural centre.

Bronze Age spread of Yamnaya Steppe pastoralist ancestry between 3300 and 1500 BC,[44] including the Afanasievo culture of southern Siberia

search term: Nepal Wikipedia Page

Nepal,[a] officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Nepal,[b] is a landlocked country in South Asia. It is mainly situated in the Himalayas, but also includes parts of the Indo-Gangetic Plain. It borders the Tibet Autonomous Region of China to the north, and India to the south, east, and west, while it is narrowly separated from Bangladesh by the Siliguri Corridor, and from Bhutan by the Indian state of Sikkim. Nepal has a diverse geography, including fertile plains, subalpine forested hills, and eight of the world's ten highest mountains, including Mount Everest, the highest point above mean sea level on Earth.[16] Kathmandu is the nation's capital and its largest city. Nepal is a multi-ethnic, multi-lingual, multi-religious, and multi-cultural state, with Nepali as the official language.

This painting in a Laotian temple depicts a legend surrounding the birth of Gautama Buddha c.563 BC in Lumbini, Western Nepal.

search term: coastal cities Wikipedia Page

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search term: Bangladesh Wikipedia Page

Bangladesh,[a] officially the People's Republic of Bangladesh,[b] is a country in South Asia. It is the eighth-most populous country in the world and among the most densely populated with a population of over 171 million within an area of 148,460 square kilometres (57,320 sq mi). Bangladesh shares land borders with India to the north, west, and east, and Myanmar to the southeast. It has a coastline along the Bay of Bengal to its south and is separated from Bhutan and Nepal by the Siliguri Corridor, and from China by the Indian state of Sikkim to its north. Dhaka, the capital and largest city, is the nation's political, financial, and cultural centre. Chittagong is the second-largest city and the busiest port of the country.

search term: Indonesia Wikipedia Page

Indonesia,[b] officially the Republic of Indonesia,[c] is a country in Southeast Asia and Oceania, between the Indian and Pacific oceans. Comprising over 17,000 islands, including Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, and parts of Borneo and New Guinea, Indonesia is the world's largest archipelagic state and the 14th-largest country by area, at 1,904,569 square kilometres (735,358 square miles). With over 280 million people, Indonesia is the world's fourth-most-populous country and the most populous Muslim-majority country. Java, the world's most populous island, is home to more than half of the country's population.

The Indonesian archipelago has carried different names in the past, such as "East Indies" in this 1855 map.

search term: natural hazards Wikipedia Page

A natural disaster is the very harmful impact on a society or community brought by natural phenomenon or hazard. Some examples of natural hazards include avalanches, droughts, earthquakes, floods, heat waves, landslides - including submarine landslides, tropical cyclones, volcanic activity and wildfires.[1] Additional natural hazards include blizzards, dust storms, firestorms, hails, ice storms, sinkholes, thunderstorms, tornadoes and tsunamis.[1]

Economic loss risk for six natural disasters: tropical cyclones, droughts, earthquakes, floods, landslides, and volcanoes.

search term: freshwater resources Wikipedia Page

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search term: energy efficiency Wikipedia Page

Energy efficiency may refer to:

search term: disaster risk management Wikipedia Page

Disaster risk reduction aims to make disasters less likely to happen. The approach, also called DRR or disaster risk management, also aims to make disasters less damaging when they do occur. DRR aims to make communities stronger and better prepared to handle disasters. In technical terms, it aims to make them more resilient or less vulnerable. When DRR is successful, it makes communities less the vulnerable because it mitigates the effects of disasters.[2] This means DRR can make risky events fewer and less severe. Climate change can increase climate hazards. So development efforts often consider DRR and climate change adaptation together.[3]

Disaster risk reduction progress score for some countries in 2011. The score of 5 is best. Assessments include four indicators that reflect the degree to which countries have prioritised disaster risk reduction and the strengthening of relevant institutions.[1]

search term: southern Australia Wikipedia Page

Southern Australia is generally considered to consist of the states and territories of Australia of New South Wales, Victoria, the Australian Capital Territory (Canberra), Tasmania and South Australia. The part of Western Australia south of latitude 26° south (which includes the state capital Perth) — a definition widely used in law and state government policy — is also usually included.

search term: northern Australia Wikipedia Page

The geographic term Northern Australia is defined by Northern Australia Infrastructure Facility Act 2016 as all of the Northern Territory and those parts of Queensland and Western Australia that intersect with the Tropic of Capricorn, including the Australian Indian Ocean Territories of Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands.[1][2] Those local government areas of Western Australia and Queensland that lie partially in the north are included.

search term: GBR Wikipedia Page

GBR or GbR may refer to:

search term: Torres Strait Islander Peoples Wikipedia Page

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search term: eastern Australia Wikipedia Page

The eastern states of Australia are the states adjoining the east continental coastline of Australia. These are the mainland states of Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland, and the island state of Tasmania. The Australian Capital Territory and Jervis Bay Territory, while not states, are also included. On some occasions, the southern state of South Australia is also included in this grouping due to its economic ties with the eastern states.

The eastern Australian states. States in red are always defined as eastern. The term can sometimes be applied to the states in orange

search term: South Australia Wikipedia Page

South Australia (commonly abbreviated as SA) is a state in the southern central part of Australia. With a total land area of 984,310 square kilometres (380,044 sq mi),[6] it is the fourth-largest of Australia's states and territories by area, which includes some of the most arid parts of the continent, and with 1.5 million people,[3] it is the fifth-largest of the states and territories by population. This population is the second-most highly centralized in the nation after Western Australia, with more than 77% of South Australians living in the capital Adelaide or its environs. Other population centres in the state are relatively small; Mount Gambier, the second-largest centre, has a population of 26,878.[7]

European settlers with Aboriginal Australians, 1850

search term: CSIRO Wikipedia Page

The Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) is an Australian Government agency that is responsible for scientific research and its commercial and industrial applications. CSIRO works with leading organisations around the world. From its headquarters in Canberra, CSIRO maintains more than 50 sites across Australia, as well as in France and the United States, and employs 6,618 staff as of 2024.

search term: NIWA Wikipedia Page

The National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research or NIWA (Māori: Taihoro Nukurangi), is a Crown Research Institute of New Zealand. Established in 1992, NIWA conducts research across a broad range of disciplines in the environmental sciences. It also maintains nationally and, in some cases, internationally important environmental monitoring networks, databases, and collections.

search term: southeast Australia Wikipedia Page

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search term: Victoria Wikipedia Page

Victoria most commonly refers to:

search term: National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility Wikipedia Page

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search term: Zealand Wikipedia Page

Zealand (Danish: Sjælland [ˈɕeˌlænˀ]) is the largest and most populous island in Denmark proper (thus excluding Greenland and Disko Island, which are larger in size) at 7,031 km2 (2715 sq. mi.). Zealand had a population of 2,319,705 on 1 January 2020, comprising 40% of the country's population.[2]

search term: Australian Wikipedia Page

Australian(s) may refer to:

search term: Queensland Government Wikipedia Page

The Queensland Government is the executive state government of Queensland, Australia. Government is formed by the party or coalition that has gained a majority in the Legislative Assembly, with the governor officially appointing office-holders.[3] The first government was formed in 1859 when Queensland separated from New South Wales under the state constitution. Since federation in 1901, Queensland has been a state of Australia, with the Constitution of Australia regulating its relationship with the Commonwealth. Like its federal counterpart, the Queensland Government takes the form of a parliamentary constitutional monarchy.

search term: Infometrics Wikipedia Page

Informetrics is the study of quantitative aspects of information,[1] it is an extension and evolution of traditional bibliometrics and scientometrics. Informetrics uses bibliometrics and scientometrics methods to study mainly the problems of literature information management and evaluation of science and technology.[2]

The relationship between the metrics terms

search term: southwest Australia Wikipedia Page

Southwest Australia is a biogeographic region in Western Australia. It includes the Mediterranean-climate area of southwestern Australia, which is home to a diverse and distinctive flora and fauna.

Ecoregions of Southwest Australia, as defined by the WWF. 1. Jarrah-Karri forest and shrublands; 2. Southwest Australia woodlands and Swan Coastal Plain; 3. Southwest Australia savanna; 4. Coolgardie woodlands; 5. Esperance mallee.

search term: Melbourne Wikipedia Page

Melbourne is the capital and most populous city of the Australian state of Victoria, and the second most-populous city in Australia, after Sydney.[1] The city's name generally refers to a 2,453 km2 (947 sq mi) area,[2] comprising an urban agglomeration of 31 local government areas.[8] The name is also used to specifically refer to the local government area named City of Melbourne, whose area is centred on the Melbourne central business district and some immediate surrounds.

search term: managed retreat Wikipedia Page

Managed retreat involves the purposeful, coordinated movement of people and buildings away from risks. This may involve the movement of a person, infrastructure (e.g., building or road), or community. It can occur in response to a variety of hazards such as flood, wildfire, or drought. Politicians, insurers, and residents are increasingly paying attention to managed retreat from low-lying coastal areas because of the threat of sea level rise due to climate change.[1] Trends in climate change predict substantial sea level rises worldwide, causing damage to human infrastructure through coastal erosion[2] and putting communities at risk of severe coastal flooding.[3]

Tollesbury Managed Realignment site in Essex, the first large-scale attempt at salt-marsh restoration in the UK

search term: Transpower Wikipedia Page

Transpower may refer to:

search term: Indigenous Australians Wikipedia Page

Indigenous Australians are the various Aboriginal Australian peoples of Australia, and the ethnically distinct people of the Torres Strait Islands. The terms Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples, First Nations of Australia, First Peoples of Australia and First Australians are also common. Many Indigenous Australians prefer to identify with their specific cultural group.[2][a]

The Australian Aboriginal flag, designed by Harold Thomas. Together with the Torres Strait Islander flag, it was proclaimed a flag of Australia in 1995.

search term: Rural Studies Wikipedia Page

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search term: Deep South National Science Challenge Wikipedia Page

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search term: eastern Wikipedia Page

Eastern or Easterns may refer to:

search term: Torres Strait Wikipedia Page

The Torres Strait (/ˈtɒrɪs/), also known as Zenadh Kes (pronounced [ˈzen̪ad̪ kes]), is a strait between Australia and the Melanesian island of New Guinea. It is 150 km (93 mi) wide at its narrowest extent. To the south is Cape York Peninsula, the northernmost extremity of the Australian mainland. To the north is the Western Province of Papua New Guinea. It is named after the Spanish navigator Luís Vaz de Torres, who sailed through the strait in 1606.

search term: interdependent systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: southwestern Australia Wikipedia Page

Southwest Australia is a biogeographic region in Western Australia. It includes the Mediterranean-climate area of southwestern Australia, which is home to a diverse and distinctive flora and fauna.

Ecoregions of Southwest Australia, as defined by the WWF. 1. Jarrah-Karri forest and shrublands; 2. Southwest Australia woodlands and Swan Coastal Plain; 3. Southwest Australia savanna; 4. Coolgardie woodlands; 5. Esperance mallee.

search term: extreme rainfall Wikipedia Page

Extreme weather includes unexpected, unusual, severe, or unseasonal weather; weather at the extremes of the historical distribution—the range that has been seen in the past. Extreme events are based on a location's recorded weather history. The main types of extreme weather include heat waves, cold waves, droughts, and heavy precipitation or storm events, such as tropical cyclones. Extreme weather can have various effects, from natural hazards such as floods and landslides to social costs on human health and the economy. Severe weather is a particular type of extreme weather which poses risks to life and property.

A tornado is an example of an extreme weather event.

search term: land uses Wikipedia Page

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search term: National Policy Statement Wikipedia Page

A National Policy Statement is created by governments to establish a consistent policy on an issue across a nation.

search term: horticulture Wikipedia Page

Horticulture (from Latin: horti + culture) is the art and science of growing fruits, vegetables, flowers, trees, shrubs and ornamental plants. Horticulture is commonly associated with the more professional and technical aspects of plant cultivation on a smaller and more controlled scale than agronomy. There are various divisions of horticulture because plants are grown for a variety of purposes.[1] These divisions include, but are not limited to: propagation, arboriculture, landscaping, floriculture and turf maintenance. For each of these, there are various professions, aspects, tools used and associated challenges -- each requiring highly specialized skills and knowledge on the part of the horticulturist.

A horticulture student tending to plants in a garden in Lawrenceville, Georgia, March 2015

search term: leadership Wikipedia Page

Leadership, is defined as the ability of an individual, group, or organization to influence, or guide other individuals, teams, or organizations.[1][2]

An APEC leader setting the tone for the 2013 APEC CEO summit with an opening speech

search term: Western Australia Wikipedia Page

Western Australia (WA) is the westernmost state of Australia. It is bounded by the Indian Ocean to the north, west, and south coastal areas, the Northern Territory to the north-east, and South Australia to the south-east. Western Australia is Australia's largest state, with a land area of 2,527,013 square kilometres (975,685 sq mi),[5] and is also the second-largest subdivision of any country on Earth.[a]

Map first drawn in 1618 by Hessel Gerritsz, 12 years after Europeans first encountered the Australian mainland,[9] showing the charted coast of Australia. Chartings after 1618, for example by François Thijssen in 1627, were added to the engraved plate between 1628 and 1632.[10]

search term: Local Government Wikipedia Page

Local government is a generic term for the lowest tiers of governance or public administration within a particular sovereign state.

Meeting of Jyväskylä's city council in 1925

search term: Commonwealth of Australia Wikipedia Page

Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands.[N 6] It has a total area of 7,688,287 km2 (2,968,464 sq mi), making it the sixth-largest country in the world and the largest in Oceania. Australia is the world's flattest and driest inhabited continent.[17] It is a megadiverse country, and its size gives it a wide variety of landscapes and climates including deserts in the interior and tropical rainforests along the coast.

search term: Gold Coast Wikipedia Page

Gold Coast may refer to:

search term: Primary Industries Wikipedia Page

In economics, the primary sector is the economic sector which comprises industry involved in the extraction and production of raw materials, such as farming, logging, fishing, forestry and mining.[1][2][3] The primary sector tends to make up a larger portion of the economy in developing countries than it does in developed countries. For example, in 2018, agriculture, forestry, and fishing comprised more than 15% of GDP in sub-Saharan Africa[4] but less than 1% of GDP in North America.[5]

search term: Water Resources Research Wikipedia Page

Water Resources Research is a peer-reviewed scientific journal published by the American Geophysical Union, covering research in the social and natural sciences of water. The editor-in-chief is Georgia Destouni (Stockholm University), who took over from Martyn Clark (2017-2020).

search term: Tangata Whenua Māori Wikipedia Page

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search term: social cohesion Wikipedia Page

Group cohesiveness, also called group cohesion, social harmony or social cohesion, is the degree or strength of bonds linking members of a social group to one another and to the group as a whole.[1][2] Although cohesion is a multi-faceted process, it can be broken down into four main components: social relations, task relations, perceived unity, and emotions.[3] Members of strongly cohesive groups are more inclined to participate readily and to stay with the group.[4]

Levels of trust are higher in countries with lower economic inequality.

search term: North Island Wikipedia Page

The North Island (Māori: Te Ika-a-Māui [tɛ i.kɐ ɐ mɑː.ʉ.i], lit. 'the fish of Māui', historically New Ulster) is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, separated from the larger but less populous South Island by Cook Strait. With an area of 113,729 km2 (43,911 sq mi),[1] it is the world's 14th-largest island, constituting 43% of New Zealand's land area. It has a population of 4,044,600 (June 2024),[2] which is 76% of New Zealand's residents,[3] making it the most populous island in Polynesia and the 28th-most-populous island in the world.

search term: alpine biodiversity Wikipedia Page

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search term: alpine ash Wikipedia Page

Eucalyptus delegatensis, commonly known as alpine ash, gum-topped stringybark, white-top[3] and in Victoria as woollybutt,[4] is a species of tree that is endemic to southeastern Australia. It has a straight trunk with rough, fibrous to stringy bark on the lower half of the trunk, smooth white bark above, lance-shaped to curved adult leaves, flower buds in groups of between seven and fifteen, white flowers and barrel-shaped or hemispherical fruit.

search term: pencil pine Wikipedia Page

Pencil pine is a common name for several plants and may refer to:

search term: National Recovery and Resilience Agency Wikipedia Page

The National Recovery and Resilience Agency (NRRA) was an Australian government executive agency to help those affected by natural disasters, including droughts, bushfires, and floods. It was an agency of the Department of Home Affairs from 1 July 2022 until it was replaced by the National Emergency Management Agency (NEMA) in September 2022.[1][2][3] Before this, it was an agency of the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet.[4]

search term: decision tools Wikipedia Page

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search term: Northern Australia Wikipedia Page

The geographic term Northern Australia is defined by Northern Australia Infrastructure Facility Act 2016 as all of the Northern Territory and those parts of Queensland and Western Australia that intersect with the Tropic of Capricorn, including the Australian Indian Ocean Territories of Christmas Island and Cocos (Keeling) Islands.[1][2] Those local government areas of Western Australia and Queensland that lie partially in the north are included.

search term: thunderstorms Wikipedia Page

A thunderstorm, also known as an electrical storm or a lightning storm, is a storm characterized by the presence of lightning and thunder.[1] Relatively weak thunderstorms are sometimes called thundershowers.[2] Thunderstorms occur in cumulonimbus clouds.[3] They are usually accompanied by strong winds[4] and often produce heavy rain[4] and sometimes snow, sleet, or hail,[4] but some thunderstorms can produce little or no precipitation at all. Thunderstorms may line up in a series or become a rainband, known as a squall line. Strong or severe thunderstorms include some of the most dangerous weather phenomena, including large hail, strong winds, and tornadoes. Some of the most persistent severe thunderstorms, known as supercells, rotate as do cyclones. While most thunderstorms move with the mean wind flow through the layer of the troposphere that they occupy, vertical wind shear sometimes causes a deviation in their course at a right angle to the wind shear direction.

Lightning from a thunderstorm near Pritzerbe, Germany

search term: Royal Commission Wikipedia Page

A royal commission is a major ad-hoc formal public inquiry into a defined issue in some monarchies. They have been held in the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Norway, Malaysia, Mauritius[1] and Saudi Arabia. In republics an equivalent entity may be termed a commission of inquiry.

search term: maximum snow depth Wikipedia Page

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search term: communities Wikipedia Page

A community is a social unit (a group of people) with a shared socially-significant characteristic(s), being place, set of norms, culture, religion, values, customs, or identity. Communities may share a sense of place situated in a given geographical area (e.g. a country, village, town, or neighborhood) or in virtual space through communication platforms. Durable good relations that extend beyond immediate genealogical ties also define a sense of community, important to people's identity, practice, and roles in social institutions such as family, home, work, government, society, or humanity at large.[1] Although communities are usually small relative to personal social ties, "community" may also refer to large-group affiliations such as national communities, international communities, and virtual communities.[2]

Community townhall

search term: Basin Plan Wikipedia Page

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search term: pasture growth Wikipedia Page

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search term: Climate Change Commission Wikipedia Page

The Climate Change Commission (Māori: He Pou a Rangi) is an independent Crown entity that advises the New Zealand Government on climate change policy and monitors the government's progress towards New Zealand's emission reduction goals within the framework of the Climate Change Response (Zero Carbon) Amendment Act . The Commission was established as the successor to the Interim Climate Change Committee following the passage of the Zero Carbon Act in November 2019.[1]

search term: Māori Wikipedia Page

Māori or Maori can refer to:

search term: Adelaide Wikipedia Page

Adelaide (/ˈædɪleɪd/ ⓘ AD-il-ayd;[8][9] Kaurna: Tarndanya [ˈd̪̥aɳɖaɲa]) is the capital and most populous city of South Australia, as well as the fifth-most populous city in Australia. The name "Adelaide" may refer to either Greater Adelaide (including the Adelaide Hills) or the Adelaide city centre; the demonym Adelaidean is used to denote the city and the residents of Adelaide. The traditional owners of the Adelaide region are the Kaurna,[10][11][12] with the name Tarndanya referring to the area of the city centre and surrounding Park Lands, in the Kaurna language.[13] Adelaide is situated on the Adelaide Plains north of the Fleurieu Peninsula, between the Gulf St Vincent in the west and the Mount Lofty Ranges in the east. Its metropolitan area extends 20 km (12 mi) from the coast to the foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges, and stretches 96 km (60 mi) from Gawler in the north to Sellicks Beach in the south.

search term: ski industry Wikipedia Page

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search term: IGCC Wikipedia Page

search term: Australian Alps Wikipedia Page

The Australian Alps are a mountain range in southeast Australia. The range comprises an interim Australian bioregion,[1][2] and is the highest mountain range on mainland Australia. The range straddles the borders of eastern Victoria, southeastern New South Wales, and the Australian Capital Territory. It contains the only peaks exceeding 2,000 m (6,600 ft) in elevation on the Australian mainland, and is the only bioregion on the Australian mainland in which deep snow falls annually. The range comprises an area of 1,232,981 ha (3,046,760 acres).[3]

search term: State of Tasmania Wikipedia Page

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search term: Real Options Analysis Wikipedia Page

Real options valuation, also often termed real options analysis,[1] (ROV or ROA) applies option valuation techniques to capital budgeting decisions.[2] A real option itself, is the right—but not the obligation—to undertake certain business initiatives, such as deferring, abandoning, expanding, staging, or contracting a capital investment project.[3] For example, real options valuation could examine the opportunity to invest in the expansion of a firm's factory and the alternative option to sell the factory.[4] Real options are most valuable when uncertainty is high; management has significant flexibility to change the course of the project in a favorable direction and is willing to exercise the options.[5]

search term: Emergency Management Wikipedia Page

Emergency management (also Disaster management or Emergency Preparedness) is a science and a system charged with creating the framework within which communities reduce vulnerability to hazards and cope with disasters.[1] Emergency management, despite its name, does not actually focus on the management of emergencies; emergencies can be understood as minor events with limited impacts and are managed through the day-to-day functions of a community. Instead, emergency management focuses on the management of disasters, which are events that produce more impacts than a community can handle on its own.[2] The management of disasters tends to require some combination of activity from individuals and households, organizations, local, and/or higher levels of government. Although many different terminologies exist globally, the activities of emergency management can be generally categorized into preparedness, response, mitigation, and recovery, although other terms such as disaster risk reduction and prevention are also common. The outcome of emergency management is to prevent disasters and where this is not possible, to reduce their harmful impacts.

A mobile emergency operations center, in this case operated by the Air National Guard

search term: Wellington Wikipedia Page

Wellington[b] is the capital city of New Zealand. It is located at the south-western tip of the North Island, between Cook Strait and the Remutaka Range. Wellington is the third-largest city in New Zealand (second largest in the North Island),[c] and is the administrative centre of the Wellington Region. It is the world's southernmost capital of a sovereign state.[17] Wellington features a temperate maritime climate, and is the world's windiest city by average wind speed.[18]

Wellington – statue of Kupe Raiatea with his wife Te Aparangi

search term: CSIRO Publishing Wikipedia Page

CSIRO Publishing is an Australian-based science and technology publisher. It publishes books, journals and magazines across a range of scientific disciplines, including agriculture, chemistry, plant and animal sciences, natural history and environmental management. It also produces interactive learning modules for primary school students and provides writing workshops for researchers.

search term: Wildland Fire Wikipedia Page

A wildfire, forest fire, or a bushfire is an unplanned and uncontrolled fire in an area of combustible vegetation.[1][2] Some natural forest ecosystems depend on wildfire.[3] Modern forest management often engages in prescribed burns to mitigate fire risk and promote natural forest cycles. However, controlled burns can turn into wildfires by mistake.

Wildfire burning in the Kaibab National Forest, Arizona, United States, in 2020. The Mangum Fire burned more than 70,000 acres (280 km2) of forest.

search term: Disaster Resilience Wikipedia Page

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search term: Deloitte Access Economics Wikipedia Page

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search term: New Zealand Wikipedia Page

New Zealand (Māori: Aotearoa,
pronounced [aɔˈtɛaɾɔa] ⓘ) is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island (Te Ika-a-Māui) and the South Island (Te Waipounamu)—and over 600 smaller islands. It is the sixth-largest island country by area and lies east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and south of the islands of New Caledonia, Fiji, and Tonga. The country's varied topography and sharp mountain peaks, including the Southern Alps (Kā Tiritiri o te Moana), owe much to tectonic uplift and volcanic eruptions. New Zealand's capital city is Wellington, and its most populous city is Auckland.

search term: Australia Wikipedia Page

Australia, officially the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country comprising the mainland of the Australian continent, the island of Tasmania and numerous smaller islands.[N 6] It has a total area of 7,688,287 km2 (2,968,464 sq mi), making it the sixth-largest country in the world and the largest in Oceania. Australia is the world's flattest and driest inhabited continent.[17] It is a megadiverse country, and its size gives it a wide variety of landscapes and climates including deserts in the interior and tropical rainforests along the coast.

search term: Tasmania Wikipedia Page

Tasmania /tæzˈmeɪniə/ (palawa kani: Lutruwita) is an island state of Australia.[13] It is located 240 kilometres (150 miles) to the south of the Australian mainland, and is separated from it by the Bass Strait. The state encompasses the main island of Tasmania, the 26th-largest island in the world, and the surrounding 1000 islands.[14] It is Australia's smallest and least populous state, with 573,479 residents as of June 2023[update]. The state capital and largest city is Hobart, with around 40% of the population living in the Greater Hobart area.[15] Tasmania is the most decentralised state in Australia, with the lowest proportion of its residents living within its capital city.[16]

Tasmania from space

search term: supply chains Wikipedia Page

A supply chain is a complex logistics system that consists of facilities that convert raw materials into finished products and distribute them[1] to end consumers[2] or end customers,[3] while supply chain management deals with the flow of goods in distribution channels within the supply chain in the most efficient manner.[4][5]

Supply and demand stacked in a conceptual chain

search term: river flows Wikipedia Page

A river is a natural stream of fresh water that flows on land or inside caves towards another body of water at a lower elevation, such as an ocean, lake, or another river. A river may run dry before reaching the end of its course if it runs out of water, or only flow during certain seasons. Rivers are regulated by the water cycle, the processes by which water moves around the Earth. Water first enters rivers through precipitation, whether from rainfall, the runoff of water down a slope, the melting of glaciers or snow, or seepage from aquifers beneath the surface of the Earth.

A boat floats on the Mekong in Laos

search term: Tourism Wikipedia Page

Tourism is travel for pleasure, and the commercial activity of providing and supporting such travel.[1] UN Tourism defines tourism more generally, in terms which go "beyond the common perception of tourism as being limited to holiday activity only", as people "travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure and not less than 24 hours, business and other purposes".[2] Tourism can be domestic (within the traveller's own country) or international. International tourism has both incoming and outgoing implications on a country's balance of payments.

The first sunrise seen from the torii gate on the sea, which is considered a sacred place (Ōarai in Japan)

search term: rural communities Wikipedia Page

Rural Sociologists have identified a number of different types of rural communities,[1] which have arisen as a result of changing economic trends within rural regions of industrial nations.

search term: natural disasters Wikipedia Page

A natural disaster is the very harmful impact on a society or community brought by natural phenomenon or hazard. Some examples of natural hazards include avalanches, droughts, earthquakes, floods, heat waves, landslides - including submarine landslides, tropical cyclones, volcanic activity and wildfires.[1] Additional natural hazards include blizzards, dust storms, firestorms, hails, ice storms, sinkholes, thunderstorms, tornadoes and tsunamis.[1]

Economic loss risk for six natural disasters: tropical cyclones, droughts, earthquakes, floods, landslides, and volcanoes.

search term: changing climate Wikipedia Page

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search term: employment Wikipedia Page

Prescriptive and policy

Wiki-training with employees of Regional Institute of Culture in Katowice 02

search term: Honduras Wikipedia Page

Honduras,[a] officially the Republic of Honduras,[b] is a country in Central America. It is bordered to the west by Guatemala, to the southwest by El Salvador, to the southeast by Nicaragua, to the south by the Pacific Ocean at the Gulf of Fonseca, and to the north by the Gulf of Honduras, a large inlet of the Caribbean Sea. Its capital and largest city is Tegucigalpa.

search term: Uruguay Wikipedia Page

Uruguay,[d] officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay,[e] is a country in South America. It shares borders with Argentina to its west and southwest and Brazil to its north and northeast, while bordering the Río de la Plata to the south and the Atlantic Ocean to the southeast. It is part of the Southern Cone region of South America. Uruguay covers an area of approximately 176,215 square kilometers (68,037 sq mi).[8] It has a population of almost 3.5 million people, of whom nearly 2 million live in the metropolitan area of its capital and largest city, Montevideo.

search term: Costa Rica Wikipedia Page

Costa Rica,[a] officially the Republic of Costa Rica,[b] is a country in Central America. It borders Nicaragua to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the northeast, Panama to the southeast, and the Pacific Ocean to the southwest, sharing a maritime border with Ecuador to the south of Cocos Island. It has a population of around five million[10][11] in a land area of nearly 51,180 km2 (19,760 sq mi);[12] the capital and largest city is San José, home to around 350,000 residents and two million people in the surrounding metropolitan area.[13]

search term: Bolivia Wikipedia Page

in South America (gray)

search term: Lima Wikipedia Page

Lima[a] is the capital and largest city of Peru. It is located in the valleys of the Chillón, Rímac and Lurín Rivers, in the desert zone of the central coastal part of the country, overlooking the Pacific Ocean. The city is considered the political, cultural, financial and commercial center of Peru. Due to its geostrategic importance, the Globalization and World Cities Research Network has categorized it as a "beta" tier city. Jurisdictionally, the metropolis extends mainly within the province of Lima and in a smaller portion, to the west, within the Constitutional Province of Callao, where the seaport and the Jorge Chávez Airport are located. Both provinces have regional autonomy since 2002.

Pachacámac, built from 3rd century to 15th century, was one of the most important pre-Columbian centers of pilgrimage on the Peruvian Coast.[13] In the image the Temple of the Moon.

search term: ECLAC Wikipedia Page

The United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (UNECLAC, ECLAC or CEPAL, in Spanish: Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe) is a United Nations regional commission to encourage economic cooperation. The ECLAC includes 46 member states (20 in Latin America, 13 in the Caribbean and 13 from outside the region), and 14 associate members which are various non-independent territories, associated island countries and a commonwealth in the Caribbean. The ECLAC publishes statistics covering the countries of the region[3] and makes cooperative agreements with nonprofit institutions.[4] The headquarters of ECLAC is in Santiago, Chile.

search term: cambio climático Wikipedia Page

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search term: Paraguay Wikipedia Page

in South America (gray)

search term: América Latina Wikipedia Page

Latin America (Spanish and Portuguese: América Latina; French: Amérique Latine) is the cultural region of the Americas where Romance languages are predominantly spoken, primarily Spanish and Portuguese.[5][d] Latin America is defined according to cultural identity, not geography, and as such it includes countries in both North and South America. Most countries south of the United States tend to be included: Mexico and the countries of Central America, South America and the Caribbean. Commonly, it refers to Hispanic America plus Brazil.[6][7][8] Related terms are the narrower Hispanic America, which exclusively refers to Spanish-speaking nations, and the broader Ibero-America, which includes all Iberic countries in the Americas and occasionally European countries like Spain, Portugal and Andorra. English- and Dutch-speaking countries and territories, although in the same geographical region, are excluded (Suriname, Guyana, the Falkland Islands, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Belize, etc.).[9]

search term: El Salvador Wikipedia Page

El Salvador,[a] officially the Republic of El Salvador,[b] is a country in Central America. It is bordered on the northeast by Honduras, on the northwest by Guatemala, and on the south by the Pacific Ocean. El Salvador's capital and largest city is San Salvador. El Salvador's population in 2024 was estimated to be 6 million.[6]

A temazcal in Joya de Cerén

search term: Venezuela Wikipedia Page

Venezuela,[c] officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela,[d] is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many islands and islets in the Caribbean Sea. It comprises an area of 916,445 km2 (353,841 sq mi), and its population was estimated at 29 million in 2022.[18] The capital and largest urban agglomeration is the city of Caracas. The continental territory is bordered on the north by the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean, on the west by Colombia, Brazil on the south, Trinidad and Tobago to the north-east and on the east by Guyana. Venezuela consists of 23 states, the Capital District, and federal dependencies covering Venezuela's offshore islands. Venezuela is among the most urbanized countries in Latin America;[22][23] the vast majority of Venezuelans live in the cities of the north and in the capital.

The German Welser Armada exploring Venezuela, German Welsers ruled Venezuela from 1528 to 1546, before it was retaken by the Spanish Empire. Painting of 1560 by Hieronymus Köler.

search term: Caribe Wikipedia Page

search term: World Meteorological Organization Wikipedia Page

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for promoting international cooperation on atmospheric science, climatology, hydrology and geophysics.[2][3]

search term: Guyana Wikipedia Page

Guyana,[d] officially the Co-operative Republic of Guyana, is a country on the northern coast of South America, that identifies with the Caribbean and was once part of the historic British West Indies.[10][4][11] Georgetown is the capital of Guyana and is also the country's largest city. Guyana is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the north, Brazil to the south and southwest, Venezuela to the west, and Suriname to the east.

search term: Patagonia Wikipedia Page

Patagonia (
Spanish pronunciation: [pataˈɣonja]) is a geographical region that includes parts of Argentina and Chile at the southern end of South America. The region includes the southern section of the Andes mountain chain with lakes, fjords, temperate rainforests, and glaciers in the west and deserts, tablelands, and steppes to the east. Patagonia is bounded by the Pacific Ocean on the west, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and many bodies of water that connect them, such as the Strait of Magellan, the Beagle Channel, and the Drake Passage to the south.

search term: Buenos Aires Wikipedia Page

Buenos Aires,[d] officially the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires,[e] is the capital and largest city of Argentina. It is located on the southwest of the Río de la Plata. Buenos Aires is classified as an Alpha− global city, according to the GaWC 2024 ranking.[14] The city proper has a population of 3.1 million and its urban area has a population of 16.7 million, making it the twentieth largest metropolitan area in the world.[15]

Our Lady of the Buen Aire in front of the National Migration Department

search term: Americas Wikipedia Page

The Americas, sometimes collectively called America,[3][4][5] are a landmass comprising the totality of North America and South America.[6][7][8] When viewed as a single continent, the Americas are the 2nd largest continent by area after Asia and the 3rd largest continent by population. The Americas make up most of the land in Earth's Western Hemisphere and constitute the New World.[3]

America is named after Italian explorer Amerigo Vespucci.[13]

search term: CSA countries Wikipedia Page

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search term: hot extremes Wikipedia Page

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search term: cambio Wikipedia Page

Cambio is the Spanish word for "change", and may refer to:

search term: coastal areas Wikipedia Page

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search term: cold extremes Wikipedia Page

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search term: Santiago Wikipedia Page

Santiago (/ˌsæntiˈɑːɡoʊ/ SAN-tee-AH-goh,
US also /ˌsɑːn-/ SAHN-,[4] Spanish: [sanˈtjaɣo]), also known as Santiago de Chile (Spanish: [sanˈtjaɣo ðe ˈtʃile] ⓘ), is the capital and largest city of Chile and one of the largest cities in the Americas. It is located in the country's central valley and is the center of the Santiago Metropolitan Region, which has a population of seven million, representing 40% of Chile's total population.[5] Most of the city is situated between 500–650 m (1,640–2,133 ft) above sea level.

search term: cepal Wikipedia Page

Famotidine, sold under the brand name Pepcid among others, is a histamine H2 receptor antagonist medication that decreases stomach acid production.[4] It is used to treat peptic ulcer disease, gastroesophageal reflux disease, and Zollinger–Ellison syndrome.[4] It is taken by mouth or by injection into a vein.[4] It begins working within an hour.[4]

search term: epidemics Wikipedia Page

An epidemic (from Greek ἐπί epi "upon or above" and δῆμος demos "people") is the rapid spread of disease to a large number of hosts in a given population within a short period of time. For example, in meningococcal infections, an attack rate in excess of 15 cases per 100,000 people for two consecutive weeks is considered an epidemic.[1][2]

Example of an epidemic showing the number of new infections over time.

search term: Atlantic Forest Wikipedia Page

The Atlantic Forest (Portuguese: Mata Atlântica), also called Missionary rainforest (Spanish: Selva Misionera), is a moist broadleaf forest that extends along the Atlantic coast of Brazil from Rio Grande do Norte state in the northeast to Rio Grande do Sul state in the south and inland as far as Paraguay and the Misiones Province of Argentina.

The Iguazu Falls are located south of the Atlantic Forest.

search term: CSA region Wikipedia Page

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search term: Panama Wikipedia Page

Panama,[a] officially the Republic of Panama,[b] is a country located at the southern end of Central America, bordering South America. It is bordered by Costa Rica to the west, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean Sea to the north, and the Pacific Ocean to the south. Its capital and largest city is Panama City, whose metropolitan area is home to nearly half of the country's over 4 million inhabitants.[9][10]

Embera girl dressed for a dance

search term: Amazon basin Wikipedia Page

The Amazon basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its tributaries. The Amazon drainage basin covers an area of about 7,000,000 km2 (2,700,000 sq mi),[1] or about 35.5 percent of the South American continent. It is located in the countries of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela, as well as the territory of French Guiana.[2][3]

Amazon River Basin (The southern Guianas, not marked on this map, are a part of the basin.)

search term: Amazon region Wikipedia Page

The Amazon basin is the part of South America drained by the Amazon River and its tributaries. The Amazon drainage basin covers an area of about 7,000,000 km2 (2,700,000 sq mi),[1] or about 35.5 percent of the South American continent. It is located in the countries of Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Peru, Suriname, and Venezuela, as well as the territory of French Guiana.[2][3]

Amazon River Basin (The southern Guianas, not marked on this map, are a part of the basin.)

search term: Rio de Janeiro Wikipedia Page

Rio de Janeiro,[a] or simply Rio,[8] is the capital of the state of Rio de Janeiro. It is the second-most-populous city in Brazil (after São Paulo) and the sixth-most-populous city in the Americas.

search term: Quito Wikipedia Page

Quito (
Spanish pronunciation: [ˈkito] ⓘ; Quechua: Kitu), officially San Francisco de Quito, is the capital and second-largest city of Ecuador, with an estimated population of 2.8 million in its metropolitan area. It is also the capital of the province of Pichincha. Quito is in a valley on the eastern slopes of Pichincha,[4] an active stratovolcano in the Andes.

Quito in 1615 by the Guamán Poma.

search term: acional Wikipedia Page

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search term: Amazonian Dark Earths Wikipedia Page

Terra preta (
Portuguese pronunciation: [ˈtɛʁɐ ˈpɾetɐ], literally "black earth" in Portuguese), also known as Amazonian dark earth or Indian black earth, is a type of very dark, fertile anthropogenic soil (anthrosol) found in the Amazon Basin. In Portuguese its full name is terra preta do índio or terra preta de índio ("black soil of the Indian", "Indians' black earth"). Terra mulata ("mulatto earth") is lighter or brownish in color.[1]

Homemade terra preta, with charcoal pieces indicated by white arrows

search term: dry season Wikipedia Page

The dry season is a yearly period of low rainfall, especially in the tropics. The weather in the tropics is dominated by the tropical rain belt, which moves from the northern to the southern tropics and back over the course of the year. The temperate counterpart to the tropical dry season is summer or winter.

Dry season in Laos. Long shadow of a dead tree with its branches on the dry fields of Don Det, a sunny day with blue sky and white clouds, late afternoon.

search term: respiratory diseases Wikipedia Page

Respiratory diseases, or lung diseases,[1] are pathological conditions affecting the organs and tissues that make gas exchange difficult in air-breathing animals. They include conditions of the respiratory tract including the trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, pleurae, pleural cavity, the nerves and muscles of respiration. Respiratory diseases range from mild and self-limiting, such as the common cold, influenza, and pharyngitis to life-threatening diseases such as bacterial pneumonia, pulmonary embolism, tuberculosis, acute asthma, lung cancer,[2] chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and severe acute respiratory syndromes, such as COVID-19.[3] Respiratory diseases can be classified in many different ways, including by the organ or tissue involved, by the type and pattern of associated signs and symptoms, or by the cause of the disease.

search term: WMO Wikipedia Page

The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for promoting international cooperation on atmospheric science, climatology, hydrology and geophysics.[2][3]

search term: Mudanças Climáticas Wikipedia Page

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search term: Prefeitura Wikipedia Page

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search term: mining Wikipedia Page

Mining is the extraction of valuable geological materials and minerals from the surface of the Earth. Mining is required to obtain most materials that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, or feasibly created artificially in a laboratory or factory. Ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones, limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay. The ore must be a rock or mineral that contains valuable constituent, can be extracted or mined and sold for profit.[1] Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum, natural gas, or even water.

Mining of sulfur from a deposit at the edge of Ijen's crater lake, Indonesia

search term: cultural values Wikipedia Page

In ethics and social sciences, value denotes the degree of importance of some thing or action, with the aim of determining which actions are best to do or what way is best to live (normative ethics), or to describe the significance of different actions. Value systems are proscriptive and prescriptive beliefs; they affect the ethical behavior of a person or are the basis of their intentional activities. Often primary values are strong and secondary values are suitable for changes. What makes an action valuable may in turn depend on the ethical values of the objects it increases, decreases, or alters. An object with "ethic value" may be termed an "ethic or philosophic good" (noun sense).[1]

Correlations between Moral foundations and Schwartz's basic values with values taken from[28]

search term: cooperatives Wikipedia Page

A cooperative (also known as co-operative, coöperative, co-op, or coop) is "an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly owned and democratically-controlled enterprise".[1] Cooperatives are democratically controlled by their members, with each member having one vote in electing the board of directors.[2] They differ from collectives in that they are generally built from the bottom-up, rather than the top-down.[3] Cooperatives may include:

The volunteer board of a retail consumer cooperative, such as the former Oxford, Swindon & Gloucester Co-op, is held to account at an annual general meeting of members.

search term: políticas Wikipedia Page

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search term: Perú Wikipedia Page

Peru,[e] officially the Republic of Peru,[f] is a country in western South America. It is bordered to the north by Ecuador and Colombia, to the east by Brazil, to the southeast by Bolivia, to the south by Chile, and to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is a megadiverse country, with habitats ranging from the arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west, to the peaks of the Andes mountains extending from the north to the southeast of the country, to the tropical Amazon basin rainforest in the east with the Amazon River.[10] Peru has a population of over 32 million, and its capital and largest city is Lima. At 1,285,216 km2 (496,225 sq mi), Peru is the 19th largest country in the world, and the third largest in South America.

Remains of a Caral/Norte Chico pyramid in the arid Supe Valley

search term: Indicadores Wikipedia Page

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search term: Meio Ambiente Wikipedia Page

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search term: Fundo Wikipedia Page

search term: worldbank Wikipedia Page

The World Bank Group (WBG) is a family of five international organizations that make leveraged loans to developing countries. It is the largest and best-known development bank in the world and an observer at the United Nations Development Group.[7] The bank is headquartered in Washington, D.C., in the United States. It provided around $98.83 billion in loans and assistance to "developing" and transition countries in the 2021 fiscal year.[8] The bank's stated mission is to achieve the twin goals of ending extreme poverty and building shared prosperity.[9] Total lending as of 2015 for the last 10 years through Development Policy Financing was approximately $117 billion.[10] Its five organizations have been established over time:

search term: water provision Wikipedia Page

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search term: vulnerability maps Wikipedia Page

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search term: public service systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: Mesoamerica Wikipedia Page

Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area that extends from the southern part of North America to the Pacific coast of Central America, thus comprising the lands of central and southern Mexico, all of Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador, western Honduras, and the Greater Nicoya region of Nicaragua and Costa Rica.[1][2][3][4] As a cultural area, Mesoamerica is defined by a mosaic of cultural traits developed and shared by its indigenous cultures.[5][2][4][6]

Cultural areas of Mesoamerica

search term: coffee Wikipedia Page

Coffee is a beverage brewed from roasted, ground coffee beans. Darkly colored, bitter, and slightly acidic, coffee has a stimulating effect on humans, primarily due to its caffeine content, but decaffeinated coffee is also commercially available. There are also various coffee substitutes.

search term: rainy season Wikipedia Page

The wet season (sometimes called the rainy season or monsoon season) is the time of year when most of a region's average annual rainfall occurs.[1] Generally, the season lasts at least one month.[2] The term green season is also sometimes used as a euphemism by tourist authorities.[3] Areas with wet seasons are dispersed across portions of the tropics and subtropics.[4]

The rainfall distribution by month in Cairns, Australia

search term: ENSO events Wikipedia Page

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search term: zoonotic diseases Wikipedia Page

A zoonosis (/zoʊˈɒnəsɪs, ˌzoʊəˈnoʊsɪs/ ⓘ;[1] plural zoonoses) or zoonotic disease is an infectious disease of humans caused by a pathogen (an infectious agent, such as a virus, bacterium, parasite, fungi, or prion) that can jump from a non-human vertebrate to a human. When humans infect non-humans, it is called reverse zoonosis or anthroponosis.[2][1][3][4]

Possibilities for zoonotic disease transmissions

search term: soil fertility Wikipedia Page

Soil fertility refers to the ability of soil to sustain agricultural plant growth, i.e. to provide plant habitat and result in sustained and consistent yields of high quality.[3] It also refers to the soil's ability to supply plant/crop nutrients in the right quantities and qualities over a sustained period of time. A fertile soil has the following properties:[4]

Soil scientists use the capital letters O, A, B, C, and E to identify the master horizons, and lowercase letters for distinctions of these horizons. Most soils have three major horizons—the surface horizon (A), the subsoil (B), and the substratum (C). Some soils have an organic horizon (O) on the surface, but this horizon can also be buried. The master horizon, E, is used for subsurface horizons that have a significant loss of minerals (eluviation). Hard bedrock, which is not soil, uses the letter R.

search term: glacier shrinkage Wikipedia Page

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search term: central Andes Wikipedia Page

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search term: Suriname Wikipedia Page

Suriname,[a] officially the Republic of Suriname,[b] is a country in northern South America, also considered as part of the Caribbean and the West Indies. Situated slightly north of the equator, over 90% of its territory is covered by rainforest, the highest proportion of forest cover in the world. Suriname is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the north, French Guiana to the east, Guyana to the west, and Brazil to the south. It is the smallest country in South America by both population and territory,[c] with around 612,985 inhabitants in 2021 in an area of approximately 163,820 square kilometers (63,251 square miles).[11][15][16][17] The capital and largest city is Paramaribo, which is home to roughly half the population.

search term: marine resources Wikipedia Page

Marine resources are resources (physical and biological entities) that are found in oceans and are useful for humans. The term was popularized through Sustainable Development Goal 14 which is about "Life below water" and is one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals established by the United Nations in 2015. The official wording of the goal is to "Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development".[1]

search term: public policies Wikipedia Page

Public policy is an institutionalized proposal or a decided set of elements like laws, regulations, guidelines, and actions[1][2] to solve or address relevant and problematic social issues, guided by a conception[3] and often implemented by programs. These policies govern and include various aspects of life such as education, health care, employment, finance, economics, transportation, and all over elements of society.[4] The implementation of public policy is known as public administration. Public policy can be considered the sum of a government's direct and indirect activities[5] and has been conceptualized in a variety of ways.

CIGI Campus, home to the Balsillie School of International Affairs

search term: urban vulnerability Wikipedia Page

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search term: financing Wikipedia Page

Funding is the act of providing resources to finance a need, program, or project. While this is usually in the form of money, it can also take the form of effort or time from an organization or company. Generally, this word is used when a firm uses its internal reserves to satisfy its necessity for cash, while the term financing is used when the firm acquires capital from external sources.[citation needed]

The flow of funds from lender to borrower

search term: Latin American cities Wikipedia Page

This is a list of the fifty largest cities in Latin America by population residing within city limits as of the mid-2020, the most recent year for which official population census results, estimate or short-term projections are available for most of these cities. These figures do not reflect the population of the urban agglomeration or metropolitan area which typically do not coincide with the administrative boundaries of the city. These figures refer to mid-2020 populations with the following exceptions:

search term: CVC Wikipedia Page

search term: desastres Wikipedia Page

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search term: Springer Netherlands Wikipedia Page

Springer Science+Business Media, commonly known as Springer, is a German multinational publishing company of books, e-books and peer-reviewed journals in science, humanities, technical and medical (STM) publishing.[1]

search term: inundaciones Wikipedia Page

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search term: População Wikipedia Page

The page "População" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: Medio Ambiente Wikipedia Page

The page "Medio Ambiente" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: Amazonian dark earths Wikipedia Page

Terra preta (
Portuguese pronunciation: [ˈtɛʁɐ ˈpɾetɐ], literally "black earth" in Portuguese), also known as Amazonian dark earth or Indian black earth, is a type of very dark, fertile anthropogenic soil (anthrosol) found in the Amazon Basin. In Portuguese its full name is terra preta do índio or terra preta de índio ("black soil of the Indian", "Indians' black earth"). Terra mulata ("mulatto earth") is lighter or brownish in color.[1]

Homemade terra preta, with charcoal pieces indicated by white arrows

search term: Município Wikipedia Page

A municipio (
Spanish: [muniˈθipjo, muniˈsipjo]) or município (Portuguese: [muniˈsipiu]) is an administrative division in several Hispanophone and Lusophone nations, respectively. It is often translated as "municipality." It comes from mūnicipium (Latin: [muːnɪˈkɪpiʊ̃ˑ]), meaning a township.

search term: Argentina Wikipedia Page

Argentina,[C] officially the Argentine Republic,[A][D] is a country in the southern half of South America. It covers an area of 2,780,085 km2 (1,073,397 sq mi),[B] making it the second-largest country in South America after Brazil, the fourth-largest country in the Americas, and the eighth-largest country in the world. Argentina shares the bulk of the Southern Cone with Chile to the west, and is also bordered by Bolivia and Paraguay to the north, Brazil to the northeast, Uruguay and the South Atlantic Ocean to the east, and the Drake Passage to the south. Argentina is a federal state subdivided into twenty-three provinces, and one autonomous city, which is the federal capital and largest city of the nation, Buenos Aires. The provinces and the capital have their own constitutions, but exist under a federal system. Argentina claims sovereignty over the Falkland Islands, South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands, the Southern Patagonian Ice Field, and a part of Antarctica.

search term: Guatemala Wikipedia Page

Guatemala,[a] officially the Republic of Guatemala,[b] is a country in Central America. It is bordered to the north and west by Mexico, to the northeast by Belize, to the east by Honduras, and to the southeast by El Salvador. It is bounded by the Pacific Ocean to the south and the Gulf of Honduras to the northeast.

Maya city of Tikal

search term: Ecuador Wikipedia Page

Ecuador,[a] officially the Republic of Ecuador,[b] is a country in northwestern South America, bordered by Colombia on the north, Peru on the east and south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west. It also includes the Galápagos Province which contains the Galápagos Islands in the Pacific, about 1,000 kilometers (621 mi) west of the mainland. The country's capital is Quito and its largest city is Guayaquil.[20]

search term: Chile Wikipedia Page

Chile,[a] officially the Republic of Chile,[b] is a country in western South America. It is the southernmost country in the world and the closest to Antarctica, stretching along a narrow strip of land between the Andes Mountains and the Pacific Ocean. Chile had a population of 17.5 million as of the latest census in 2017 and has a territorial area of 756,102 square kilometers (291,933 sq mi),[11][3] sharing borders with Peru to the north, Bolivia to the northeast, Argentina to the east, and the Drake Passage to the south. The country also controls several Pacific islands, including Juan Fernández, Isla Salas y Gómez, Desventuradas, and Easter Island, and claims about 1,250,000 square kilometers (480,000 sq mi) of Antarctica as the Chilean Antarctic Territory.[nb 2] The capital and largest city of Chile is Santiago, and the national language is Spanish.

search term: Colombia Wikipedia Page

Colombia,[b] officially the Republic of Colombia,[c] is a country primarily located in South America with insular regions in North America. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the north, Venezuela to the east and northeast, Brazil to the southeast, Peru and Ecuador to the south and southwest, the Pacific Ocean to the west, and Panama to the northwest. Colombia is divided into 32 departments. The Capital District of Bogotá is also the country's largest city hosting the main financial and cultural hub. Other major urban areas include Medellín, Cali, Barranquilla, Cartagena, Santa Marta, Cúcuta, Ibagué, Villavicencio and Bucaramanga. It covers an area of 1,141,748 square kilometers (440,831 sq mi) and has a population of around 52 million. Its rich cultural heritage[15]—including language, religion, cuisine, and art—reflects its history as a colony, fusing cultural elements brought by immigration from Europe[16][17][18][19] and the Middle East,[20][21][22] with those brought by the African diaspora,[23] as well as with those of the various Indigenous civilizations that predate colonization.[24] Spanish is the official language, although Creole, English and 64 other languages are recognized regionally.

search term: Brazil Wikipedia Page

Brazil,[c] officially the Federative Republic of Brazil,[d] is the largest country in South America. It is also the world's fifth-largest country by area and the seventh-largest by population, with over 213 million people. The country is a federation composed of 26 states and a Federal District, which hosts the capital, Brasília. Its most populous city is São Paulo, followed by Rio de Janeiro. Brazil has the most Portuguese speakers in the world and is the only country in the Americas where Portuguese is an official language.[11][12]

search term: Andes Wikipedia Page

The Andes (/ˈændiːz/ AN-deez Ananta), Andes Mountains or Andean Mountain Range (Spanish: Cordillera de los Andes; Quechua: Anti) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is 8,900 km (5,500 mi) long and 200 to 700 km (120 to 430 mi) wide (widest between 18°S and 20°S latitude) and has an average height of about 4,000 m (13,000 ft). The Andes extend from south to north through seven South American countries: Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela.

search term: Nicaragua Wikipedia Page

Nicaragua,[d] officially the Republic of Nicaragua,[e] is the geographically largest country in Central America, comprising 130,370 km2 (50,340 sq mi). With a population of 7,142,529 as of 2024,[15] it is the third-most populous country in Central America after Guatemala and Honduras.

Location of Nicanahuac, the Indigenous name for western Nicaragua and northwestern Costa Rica given by the Nahuas who inhabited the region.

search term: tropical Andes Wikipedia Page

The Tropical Andes is northern of the three climate-delineated parts of the Andes, the others being the Dry Andes and the Wet Andes. The Tropical Andes' area spans 1,542,644 km2 (595,618 sq mi).

search term: Peru Wikipedia Page

Peru,[e] officially the Republic of Peru,[f] is a country in western South America. It is bordered to the north by Ecuador and Colombia, to the east by Brazil, to the southeast by Bolivia, to the south by Chile, and to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. Peru is a megadiverse country, with habitats ranging from the arid plains of the Pacific coastal region in the west, to the peaks of the Andes mountains extending from the north to the southeast of the country, to the tropical Amazon basin rainforest in the east with the Amazon River.[10] Peru has a population of over 32 million, and its capital and largest city is Lima. At 1,285,216 km2 (496,225 sq mi), Peru is the 19th largest country in the world, and the third largest in South America.

Remains of a Caral/Norte Chico pyramid in the arid Supe Valley

search term: Latin America Wikipedia Page

Latin America (Spanish and Portuguese: América Latina; French: Amérique Latine) is the cultural region of the Americas where Romance languages are predominantly spoken, primarily Spanish and Portuguese.[5][d] Latin America is defined according to cultural identity, not geography, and as such it includes countries in both North and South America. Most countries south of the United States tend to be included: Mexico and the countries of Central America, South America and the Caribbean. Commonly, it refers to Hispanic America plus Brazil.[6][7][8] Related terms are the narrower Hispanic America, which exclusively refers to Spanish-speaking nations, and the broader Ibero-America, which includes all Iberic countries in the Americas and occasionally European countries like Spain, Portugal and Andorra. English- and Dutch-speaking countries and territories, although in the same geographical region, are excluded (Suriname, Guyana, the Falkland Islands, Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Belize, etc.).[9]

search term: medium evidence Wikipedia Page

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search term: Amazonia Wikipedia Page

The Amazon rainforest,[a] also called the Amazon jungle or Amazonia, is a moist broadleaf tropical rainforest in the Amazon biome that covers most of the Amazon basin of South America. This basin encompasses 7 million km2 (2.7 million sq mi),[2] of which 6 million km2 (2.3 million sq mi) are covered by the rainforest.[3] This region includes territory belonging to nine nations and 3,344 indigenous territories.

search term: CSA Wikipedia Page

search term: Peruvian Andes Wikipedia Page

The Andes (/ˈændiːz/ AN-deez Ananta), Andes Mountains or Andean Mountain Range (Spanish: Cordillera de los Andes; Quechua: Anti) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is 8,900 km (5,500 mi) long and 200 to 700 km (120 to 430 mi) wide (widest between 18°S and 20°S latitude) and has an average height of about 4,000 m (13,000 ft). The Andes extend from south to north through seven South American countries: Argentina, Chile, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and Venezuela.

search term: landslides Wikipedia Page

Landslides, also known as landslips, rockslips or rockslides,[3][4][5] are several forms of mass wasting that may include a wide range of ground movements, such as rockfalls, mudflows, shallow or deep-seated slope failures and debris flows.[6] Landslides occur in a variety of environments, characterized by either steep or gentle slope gradients, from mountain ranges to coastal cliffs or even underwater,[7] in which case they are called submarine landslides.

A landslide near Cusco, Peru, in 2018

search term: Central America Wikipedia Page

Central America[g] is a subregion of North America. Its political boundaries are defined as bordering Mexico to the north, Colombia to the southeast, the Caribbean to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the southwest. Central America is usually defined as consisting of seven countries: Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama. Within Central America is the Mesoamerican biodiversity hotspot, which extends from southern Mexico to southeastern Panama. Due to the presence of several active geologic faults and the Central America Volcanic Arc, there is a high amount of seismic activity in the region, such as volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, which has resulted in death, injury, and property damage.

Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama are traditionally the seven Central American countries in political geography.

search term: South America Wikipedia Page

South America is a continent[g] entirely in the Western Hemisphere[h] and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a considerably smaller portion in the Northern Hemisphere. It can also be described as the southern subregion of the Americas.

search term: Brazilian Amazon Wikipedia Page

Brazil's Legal Amazon (abbreviation BLA),[1][2] in Portuguese Amazônia Legal (
Portuguese pronunciation: [amaˈzonjɐ leˈɡaw]), is the largest socio-geographic division in Brazil, containing all nine states in the Amazon basin. The government designated this region in 1948 based on its studies on how to plan the economic and social development of the Amazon region.

States within Amazônia Legal.

search term: land tenure Wikipedia Page

In common law systems, land tenure, from the French verb "tenir" means "to hold", is the legal regime in which land "owned" by an individual is possessed by someone else who is said to "hold" the land, based on an agreement between both individuals.[1] It determines who can use land, for how long and under what conditions. Tenure may be based both on official laws and policies, and on informal local customs (insofar higher law does allow that). In other words, land tenure implies a system according to which land is held by an individual or the actual tiller of the land but this person does not have legal ownership. It determines the holder's rights and responsibilities in connection with their holding. The sovereign monarch, known in England as the Crown, held land in its own right. All land holders are either its tenants or sub-tenants. Tenure signifies a legal relationship between tenant and lord, arranging the duties and rights of tenant and lord in relationship to the land. Over history, many different forms of land tenure, i.e., ways of holding land, have been established.

Map of countries where foreign land ownership is banned as of 2023

search term: dengue Wikipedia Page

Dengue fever is a mosquito-borne disease caused by dengue virus, prevalent in tropical and subtropical areas. Most cases of dengue fever are either asymptomatic or manifest mild symptoms.[8][7] Symptoms typically begin 3 to 14 days after infection. They may include a high fever, headache, vomiting, muscle and joint pains, and a characteristic skin itching and skin rash. Recovery generally takes two to seven days. In a small proportion of cases, the disease develops into severe dengue (previously known as dengue hemorrhagic fever or dengue shock syndrome)[9] with bleeding, low levels of blood platelets, blood plasma leakage, and dangerously low blood pressure.[1][2]

search term: World Health Organization Wikipedia Page

The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations which coordinates responses to international public health issues and emergencies.[2] It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, and has six regional offices[3] and 150 field offices worldwide. Only sovereign states are eligible to join, and it is the largest intergovernmental health organization at the international level.[4]

search term: Belize Wikipedia Page

Belize[a] is a country on the north-eastern coast of Central America. It is bordered by Mexico to the north, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and Guatemala to the west and south. It also shares a maritime boundary with Honduras to the southeast. Despite being in central America, Belize identifies with the Caribbean region, and is a member of the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) and the Commonwealth Caribbean, the historical British West Indies.

The extent of the Maya civilization

search term: glacier retreat Wikipedia Page

The retreat of glaciers since 1850 is a well-documented effect of climate change. The retreat of mountain glaciers provides evidence for the rise in global temperatures since the late 19th century. Examples include mountain glaciers in western North America, Asia, the Alps in central Europe, and tropical and subtropical regions of South America and Africa. Since glacial mass is affected by long-term climatic changes, e.g. precipitation, mean temperature, and cloud cover, glacial mass changes are one of the most sensitive indicators of climate change. The retreat of glaciers is also a major reason for sea level rise. Excluding peripheral glaciers of ice sheets, the total cumulated global glacial losses over the 26 years from 1993 to 2018 were likely 5500 gigatons, or 210 gigatons per year.[2]: 1275

Alaska's McCarty Glacier retreated about 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) in less than a century, and dense, diverse vegetation has become established on the slopes.[1]

search term: Climate Services Wikipedia Page

Climate information services (CIS) entail the dissemination of climate data in a way that aids people and organizations in making decisions. CIS helps its users foresee and control the hazards associated with a changing and unpredictable climate.[1] It encompasses a knowledge loop that includes targeted user communities' access to, interpretation of, communication of, and use of pertinent, accurate, and trustworthy climate information, as well as their feedback on that use. Climate information services involve the timely production, translation and delivery of useful climate data, information and knowledge.[2]

search term: Intergovernmental Panel Wikipedia Page

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search term: social inequalities Wikipedia Page

1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias

"Portrait of Sir Francis Ford's Children Giving a Coin to a Beggar Boy" by William Beechey

search term: Amazon Wikipedia Page

Amazon most often refers to:

search term: land use change Wikipedia Page

Land use is an umbrella term to describe what happens on a parcel of land. It concerns the benefits derived from using the land, and also the land management actions that humans carry out there.[1] The following categories are used for land use: forest land, cropland (agricultural land), grassland, wetlands, settlements and other lands.[2] The way humans use land, and how land use is changing, has many impacts on the environment.[3][4] Effects of land use choices and changes by humans include, for example, urban sprawl, soil erosion, soil degradation, land degradation and desertification.[5] Land use and land management practices have a major impact on natural resources including water, soil, nutrients, plants and animals.[6][7]

Cumulative CO2 emissions from land-use change (as of 2021). Emissions from land-use change can be positive or negative depending on whether these changes emit (positive, brown on the map) or sequester (negative) carbon (green on the map).

search term: storm surges Wikipedia Page

A storm surge, storm flood, tidal surge, or storm tide is a coastal flood or tsunami-like phenomenon of rising water commonly associated with low-pressure weather systems, such as cyclones. It is measured as the rise in water level above the normal tidal level, and does not include waves.[1]

Storm surge of the North Sea on February 9, 2014, as seen on the South Beach (Südstrand) in Wilhelmshaven, Germany.

search term: Springer International Publishing Wikipedia Page

Springer Nature or the Springer Nature Group[1][2] is a German-British academic publishing company created by the May 2015 merger of Springer Science+Business Media and Holtzbrinck Publishing Group's Nature Publishing Group, Palgrave Macmillan, and Macmillan Education.[3]

search term: Italy Wikipedia Page

Italy,[a] officially the Italian Republic,[b] is a country in Southern and Western Europe.[c] It consists of a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land border, as well as nearly 800 islands, notably Sicily and Sardinia. Italy shares land borders with France to the west; Switzerland and Austria to the north; Slovenia to the east; and the two enclaves of Vatican City and San Marino. It is the tenth-largest country in Europe by area, covering 301,340 km2 (116,350 sq mi), and the third-most populous member state of the European Union, with nearly 59 million inhabitants. Italy's capital and largest city is Rome; other major cities include Milan, Naples, Turin, Palermo, Bologna, Florence, Genoa, and Venice.

Etruscan fresco in the Monterozzi necropolis, 5th century BC

search term: SEU Wikipedia Page

SEU or Seu may refer to:

search term: European countries Wikipedia Page

The list below includes all entities falling even partially under any of the various common definitions of Europe, geographical or political. Fifty generally recognised sovereign states, Kosovo with limited, but substantial, international recognition, and four largely unrecognised de facto states with limited to no recognition have territory in Europe and/or membership in international European organisations. There are eight entities that are not integral parts of a European state or have special political arrangements.

Political map of Europe and the surrounding region

search term: EU Wikipedia Page

in Europe (dark grey)

search term: Luxembourg Wikipedia Page

– in Europe (light green & dark grey)
– in the European Union (light green) – [Legend]

search term: NEU Wikipedia Page

Neu! is a German krautrock band.

search term: Austria Wikipedia Page

Austria,[e] formally the Republic of Austria,[f] is a landlocked country in Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps.[15] It is a federation of nine states, of which the capital Vienna is the most populous city and state. Austria is bordered by Germany to the northwest, the Czech Republic to the north, Slovakia to the northeast, Hungary to the east, Slovenia and Italy to the south, and Switzerland and Liechtenstein to the west. The country occupies an area of 83,879 km2 (32,386 sq mi) and has a population of around 9 million.[10]

Venus of Willendorf, 28,000 to 25,000 BC, at the Museum of Natural History Vienna

search term: EEU Wikipedia Page

search term: European regions Wikipedia Page

Europe is often divided into regions and subregions based on geographical, cultural or historical factors. Since there is no universal agreement on Europe's regional composition, the placement of individual countries may vary based on criteria being used. For instance, the Balkans is a distinct geographical region within Europe, but individual countries may alternatively be grouped into Central, Eastern, Southeastern, or Southern Europe.

search term: European Commission Wikipedia Page

The European Commission (EC) is the primary executive branch of the European Union (EU).

search term: Knowledge Gaps Wikipedia Page

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search term: WCE Wikipedia Page

search term: Venice Wikipedia Page

Venice[a] is a city in northeastern Italy and the capital of the region of Veneto. It is built on a group of 118 islands that are separated by expanses of open water and by canals; portions of the city are linked by 438 bridges.[3]

The foundation of Venice as depicted in the Chronicon Pictum in 1358. According to the Hungarian chronicle, King Attila of the Huns besieged Aquileia, the inhabitants of the city first fled to a sea island and then founded Venice on the island of Rialto.

search term: Portugal Wikipedia Page

– in Europe (green & dark grey)
– in the European Union (green)

Almendres Cromlech, the largest stone circle in the Iberian Peninsula.

search term: SSP 1.00 Wikipedia Page

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search term: European Comission Wikipedia Page

The European Commission (EC) is the primary executive branch of the European Union (EU).

search term: Bank of England Wikipedia Page

William, Prince of Wales

Handwritten banknote dated 1697, signed 'for the Governor and Company of the Bank of England' by 2nd Cashier Robert Hedges

search term: Russian Federation Wikipedia Page

Russia,[b] or the Russian Federation,[c] is a country in Eastern Europe and North Asia. It is the largest country in the world, spanning eleven time zones and sharing land borders with fourteen countries.[d] With over 140 million people, Russia is the most populous country in Europe and the ninth-most populous in the world. It is a highly urbanised country, with sixteen of its urban areas having more than 1 million inhabitants. Moscow, the most populous metropolitan area in Europe, is the capital and largest city of Russia; Saint Petersburg is its second-largest city and cultural centre.

Bronze Age spread of Yamnaya Steppe pastoralist ancestry between 3300 and 1500 BC,[44] including the Afanasievo culture of southern Siberia

search term: European waters Wikipedia Page

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search term: SSP 5.00 Wikipedia Page

The page "SSP 5.00" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: European ecosystems Wikipedia Page

The page "European ecosystems" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: Eurostat Wikipedia Page

Eurostat ("European Statistical Office"; also DG ESTAT) is a department of the European Commission (Directorate-General), located in the Kirchberg quarter of Luxembourg City, Luxembourg. Eurostat's main responsibilities are to provide statistical information to the institutions of the European Union (EU) and to promote the harmonisation of statistical methods across its member states and candidates for accession as well as EFTA countries. The organisations in the different countries that cooperate with Eurostat are summarised under the concept of the European Statistical System.

search term: SSP 3.00 Wikipedia Page

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search term: European Parliament Wikipedia Page

The European Parliament (EP) is one of the two legislative bodies of the European Union (EU) and one of its seven institutions. Together with the Council of the European Union (known as the Council and informally as the Council of Ministers), it adopts European legislation, following a proposal by the European Commission. The Parliament is composed of 720 members (MEPs), after the June 2024 European elections, from a previous 705 MEPs. It represents the second-largest democratic electorate in the world (after the Parliament of India), with an electorate of around 375 million eligible voters in 2024.[4][5][6]

search term: socioeconomic developments Wikipedia Page

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search term: groundwater depletion Wikipedia Page

Overdrafting is the process of extracting groundwater beyond the equilibrium yield of an aquifer. Groundwater is one of the largest sources of fresh water and is found underground. The primary cause of groundwater depletion is the excessive pumping of groundwater up from underground aquifers. Insufficient recharge can lead to depletion, reducing the usefulness of the aquifer for humans. Depletion can also have impacts on the environment around the aquifer, such as soil compression and land subsidence, local climatic change, soil chemistry changes, and other deterioration of the local environment.

Within a long period of groundwater depletion in California's Central Valley, short periods of recovery were mostly driven by extreme weather events that typically caused flooding and had negative social, environmental and economic consequences.[1]

search term: flood management Wikipedia Page

Flood management or flood control are methods used to reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of flood waters. Flooding can be caused by a mix of both natural processes, such as extreme weather upstream, and human changes to waterbodies and runoff. Flood management methods can be either of the structural type (i.e. flood control) and of the non-structural type. Structural methods hold back floodwaters physically, while non-structural methods do not. Building hard infrastructure to prevent flooding, such as flood walls, is effective at managing flooding. However, it is best practice within landscape engineering to rely more on soft infrastructure and natural systems, such as marshes and flood plains, for handling the increase in water.

A weir was built on the Humber River (Ontario) to prevent a recurrence of a catastrophic flood.

search term: European Wikipedia Page

European, or Europeans, may refer to:

search term: Russian Arctic Wikipedia Page

The Extreme North[a] or the Far North[b] is a large part of Russia located mainly north of the Arctic Circle and boasting enormous mineral and natural resources. Its total area is about 5,500,000 square kilometres (2,100,000 sq mi), comprising about one-third of Russia's total area.[1] Formally, the regions of the Extreme North comprise the whole of Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, Kamchatka Krai, Magadan Oblast, Murmansk Oblast and Sakha, as well as certain parts and cities of Arkhangelsk Oblast, Irkutsk Oblast, Khabarovsk Krai, Komi Republic, Krasnoyarsk Krai, Republic of Karelia, Sakhalin Oblast, Tuva, Tyumen Oblast, as well as all islands of the Arctic Ocean, its seas, the Bering Sea, and the Sea of Okhotsk.

The Extreme North
Territories equated to the Extreme North
[clarification needed]

search term: MPAs Wikipedia Page

The acronym MPAS may refer to:

search term: European Russia Wikipedia Page

European Russia[a] is the western and most populated part of the Russian Federation. It is geographically situated in Europe, as opposed to the country's sparsely populated and vastly larger eastern part, Siberia, which is situated in Asia, encompassing the entire northern region of the continent. The two parts of Russia are divided by the Ural Mountains and Ural river, bisecting the Eurasian supercontinent. European Russia covers the vast majority of Eastern Europe, and spans roughly 40% of Europe's total landmass, with over 15% of its total population, making Russia the largest and most populous country in Europe. The region is divided into five Federal districts.

Part of Russia situated in Europe (c. 23% of the total country's territory)

search term: key infrastructures Wikipedia Page

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search term: Czech Republic Wikipedia Page

– in Europe (green & dark gray)
– in the European Union (green) – [Legend]

The Crown of Bohemia within the Holy Roman Empire (1600). The Czech lands were part of the Empire in 1002–1806, and Prague was the imperial seat in 1346–1437 and 1583–1611.

search term: reindeer herding Wikipedia Page

Reindeer herding is when reindeer are herded by people in a limited area. Currently, reindeer are the only semi-domesticated animal which naturally belong to the North. Reindeer herding is conducted in nine countries: Norway, Finland, Sweden, Russia, Greenland, the United States (Alaska), Mongolia, China and Canada. A small herd is also maintained in Scotland's Cairngorms National Park.[1]

Nenets people in Russia

search term: London Wikipedia Page

London[c] is the capital and largest city[d] of both England and the United Kingdom, with a population of 9.1 million people in 2024.[2] Its wider metropolitan area is the largest in Western Europe, with a population of 15.1 million.[4] London stands on the River Thames in southeast England, at the head of a 50-mile (80 km) tidal estuary down to the North Sea, and has been a major settlement for nearly 2,000 years.[7] Its ancient core and financial centre, the City of London, was founded by the Romans as Londinium and has retained its medieval boundaries.[e][8] The City of Westminster, to the west of the City of London, has been the centuries-long host of the national government and parliament. London grew rapidly in the 19th century, becoming the world's largest city at the time. Since the 19th century[9] the name "London" has referred to the metropolis around the City of London, historically split between the counties of Middlesex, Essex, Surrey, Kent and Hertfordshire,[10] which since 1965 has largely comprised the administrative area of Greater London, governed by 33 local authorities and the Greater London Authority.[f][11]

Westminster Abbey, as seen in this painting (Canaletto, 1749), is a World Heritage Site and one of London's oldest and most important buildings.

search term: European Economic and Social Committee Wikipedia Page

The European Economic and Social Committee (EESC) is a consultative body of the European Union (EU) established in 1958. It is an advisory assembly composed of representatives from employers' associations, workers' unions (trade unions) and civil society organisations. Its seat, which it shares with the Committee of the Regions, is the Jacques Delors building on Belliardstraat / Rue Belliard 99 in Brussels.

search term: European cities Wikipedia Page

This list ranks metropolitan areas in Europe by their population according to three different sources; it includes metropolitan areas that have a population of over 1 million.

Moscow, the capital of Russia, has the most populous metropolitan area in Europe.

search term: Europe Wikipedia Page

Europe is a continent[t] located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere and mostly in the Eastern Hemisphere. It is bordered by the Arctic Ocean to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the west, the Mediterranean Sea to the south, and Asia to the east. Europe shares the landmass of Eurasia with Asia, and of Afro-Eurasia with both Africa and Asia.[9][10] Europe is commonly considered to be separated from Asia by the watershed of the Ural Mountains, the Ural River, the Caspian Sea, the Greater Caucasus, the Black Sea, and the Turkish straits.[11]

Reconstruction of an early world map made by Anaximander of the 6th century BCE, dividing the known world into three large landmasses, one of which was named Europe

search term: European Union Wikipedia Page

in Europe (dark grey)

search term: Southern Europe Wikipedia Page

Southern Europe[1] is also known as Mediterranean Europe, as its geography is marked by the Mediterranean Sea. Definitions of southern Europe include some or all of these countries and regions: Albania, Andorra, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria,[note 1] Croatia, Cyprus,[note 2] Gibraltar,[note 3] Greece,[note 4] Italy,[note 5] Kosovo, Malta,[note 6] Monaco,[note 7] Montenegro, North Macedonia, Portugal, San Marino, Serbia, Slovenia, southern France,[note 8] southern Romania,[note 9] Spain, Ticino (Switzerland),[note 10] Turkey,[note 11] and Vatican City.[6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13]

The geographical and ethno-cultural borders of southern Europe are the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the Balkan Mountains to the north and the Mediterranean Sea to the south.

search term: Sweden Wikipedia Page

– in Europe (green & dark grey)
– in the European Union (green) – [Legend]

A Vendel-era helmet, at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities

search term: Central Europe Wikipedia Page

Central Europe is a geographical region of Europe between Eastern, Southern, Western and Northern Europe.[3][4] Central Europe is known for its cultural diversity;[5][6] however, countries in this region also share certain historical and cultural similarities.[7][8]

A view of Central Europe dating from the time before World War I (1902):[49]
Central European countries and regions: the German Empire and the Habsburg monarchy (without Bosnia and Herzegovina and Dalmatia)
Regions located at the transition between Central Europe and Southeastern/Eastern Europe: Romania

search term: pluvial flooding Wikipedia Page

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search term: Observed Impacts Wikipedia Page

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search term: Norway Wikipedia Page

in Europe (green and dark grey)

search term: adaptation actions Wikipedia Page

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search term: compound events Wikipedia Page

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search term: adaptation pathways Wikipedia Page

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search term: Adaptation Options Wikipedia Page

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search term: overheating risk Wikipedia Page

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search term: Germany Wikipedia Page

Germany,[d] officially the Federal Republic of Germany,[e] is a country in Western and Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen constituent states have a total population of over 82 million, making it the most populous member state of the European Union. Germany borders Denmark to the north; Poland and the Czech Republic to the east; Austria and Switzerland to the south; and France, Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands to the west. The nation's capital and most populous city is Berlin and its main financial centre is Frankfurt; the largest urban area is the Ruhr.

Basilica of Constantine in Trier (Augusta Treverorum), built in the 4th century

search term: Netherlands Wikipedia Page

– in Europe (light green & dark grey)
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The Rhine frontier around 70 AD

search term: France Wikipedia Page

France,[h] officially the French Republic,[i] is a country primarily located in Western Europe. Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the North Atlantic, the French West Indies, and many islands in Oceania and the Indian Ocean, giving it the largest discontiguous exclusive economic zone in the world. Metropolitan France shares borders with Belgium and Luxembourg to the north; Germany to the northeast; Switzerland to the east; Italy and Monaco to the southeast; Andorra and Spain to the south; and a maritime border with the United Kingdom to the northwest. Its metropolitan area extends from the Rhine to the Atlantic Ocean and from the Mediterranean Sea to the English Channel and the North Sea. Its 18 integral regions—five of which are overseas—span a combined area of 632,702 km2 (244,288 sq mi) and have an estimated total population of over 68.6 million as of January 2025[update]. France is a semi-presidential republic. Its capital, largest city and main cultural and economic centre is Paris.

The Maison carrée was a temple of the Gallo-Roman city of Nemausus (present-day Nîmes) and is one of the best-preserved Roman temples anywhere.

search term: UK Wikipedia Page

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom (UK) or Britain,[m] is a country in Northwestern Europe, off the coast of the continental mainland. It comprises England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland,[n] with a population of over 69 million in 2024. The UK includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern part of the island of Ireland, and most of the smaller islands within the British Isles, covering 94,354 square miles (244,376 km2).[f] It shares a land border with the Republic of Ireland and is otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic Ocean, the North Sea, the English Channel, the Celtic Sea and the Irish Sea, while maintaining sovereignty over the British Overseas Territories. The capital and largest city of both England and the UK is London; Edinburgh, Cardiff and Belfast are the national capitals of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.

search term: cultural heritage Wikipedia Page

Cultural heritage is the tangible and intangible legacy of a group or society that is inherited from past generations. Not all legacies of past generations are "heritage"; rather, heritage is a product of selection by society.[1]

Roman ruins with a prophet, by Giovanni Pannini, 1751. The artistic cultural heritage of the Roman Empire served as a foundation for later Western culture, particularly via the Renaissance and Neoclassicism (as exemplified here).

search term: Spain Wikipedia Page

Spain,[g] officially the Kingdom of Spain,[h] is a country in Southern and Western Europe with territories in North Africa.[i] Featuring the southernmost point of continental Europe, it is the largest country in Southern Europe and the fourth-most populous European Union (EU) member state. Spanning the majority of the Iberian Peninsula, its territory also includes the Canary Islands, in the Eastern Atlantic Ocean, the Balearic Islands, in the Western Mediterranean Sea, and the autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla, in mainland Africa. Peninsular Spain is bordered to the north by France, Andorra, and the Bay of Biscay; to the east and south by the Mediterranean Sea and Gibraltar; and to the west by Portugal and the Atlantic Ocean. Spain's capital and largest city is Madrid; other major urban areas include Barcelona, Valencia, Seville, Zaragoza, Málaga, Murcia, and Palma de Mallorca.

search term: autonomous adaptation Wikipedia Page

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search term: flood risk management Wikipedia Page

Flood management or flood control are methods used to reduce or prevent the detrimental effects of flood waters. Flooding can be caused by a mix of both natural processes, such as extreme weather upstream, and human changes to waterbodies and runoff. Flood management methods can be either of the structural type (i.e. flood control) and of the non-structural type. Structural methods hold back floodwaters physically, while non-structural methods do not. Building hard infrastructure to prevent flooding, such as flood walls, is effective at managing flooding. However, it is best practice within landscape engineering to rely more on soft infrastructure and natural systems, such as marshes and flood plains, for handling the increase in water.

A weir was built on the Humber River (Ontario) to prevent a recurrence of a catastrophic flood.

search term: heat extremes Wikipedia Page

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search term: monitoring Wikipedia Page

Monitoring may refer to:

search term: regulations Wikipedia Page

Regulation is the management of complex systems according to a set of rules and trends. In systems theory, these types of rules exist in various fields of biology and society, but the term has slightly different meanings according to context. For example:

search term: National Climate Assessment Wikipedia Page

File:NCA5 2023 FullReport.pdf The National Climate Assessment (NCA) is an initiative[1] within the U.S. federal government focused on climate change science, formed under the auspices of the Global Change Research Act of 1990.[2][3] The U.S. Global Change Research Program (USGCRP) which coordinates a team of experts and receives input from a Federal Advisory Committee. The first National Climate Assessment was published in 2000. Since four additional reports have been published, with the Fifth report published in 2023.

search term: Global Change Research Program Wikipedia Page

The United States Global Change Research Program (USGCRP) coordinates and integrates federal research on changes in the global environment and their implications for society. The program began as a presidential initiative in 1989 and was codified by Congress through the Global Change Research Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-606), which called for "a comprehensive and integrated United States research program which will assist the Nation and the world to understand, assess, predict, and respond to human-induced and natural processes of global change."[1]

Fourteen federal entities participate in the United States Global Change Research Program (USGCRP).

search term: Tribal Environmental Professionals Wikipedia Page

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search term: Northern Arizona University Wikipedia Page

Northern Arizona University (NAU) is a public research university based in Flagstaff, Arizona, United States.[7] Founded in 1899, it was the third and final university established in the Arizona Territory.[8]

Teacher Training School (now Blome Building), 1922

search term: Flagstaff Wikipedia Page

Flagstaff commonly refers to:

search term: Tribes Wikipedia Page

The term tribe is used in many different contexts to refer to a category of human social group. The predominant worldwide use of the term in English is in the discipline of anthropology. The definition is contested, in part due to conflicting theoretical understandings of social and kinship structures, and also reflecting the problematic application of this concept to extremely diverse human societies. Its concept is often contrasted by anthropologists with other social and kinship groups, being hierarchically larger than a lineage or clan, but smaller than a chiefdom, ethnicity, nation or state. These terms are similarly disputed. In some cases tribes have legal recognition and some degree of political autonomy from national or federal government, but this legalistic usage of the term may conflict with anthropological definitions.

Tribal war on the plains. Comanche (right) trying to lance an Osage warrior. Painting by George Catlin, 1834

search term: Texas Wikipedia Page

Texas (/ˈtɛksəs/ ⓘ TEK-səss)[c] is the most populous state in the South Central region of the United States. It borders Louisiana to the east, Arkansas to the northeast, Oklahoma to the north, New Mexico to the west, and an international border with the Mexican states of Chihuahua, Coahuila, Nuevo León, and Tamaulipas to the south and southwest. Texas has a coastline on the Gulf of Mexico to the southeast. Covering 268,596 square miles (695,660 km2) and with over 31 million residents as of 2024,[5] it is the second-largest U.S. state by area and population. Texas is nicknamed the Lone Star State for the single star on its flag, symbolic of its former status as an independent country, the Republic of Texas.[10]

Early Native American tribal territories

search term: wildfire smoke Wikipedia Page

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search term: Gulf of Mexico Wikipedia Page

The Gulf of Mexico (Spanish: Golfo de México) is an oceanic basin and a marginal sea of the Atlantic Ocean,[3][4] mostly surrounded by the North American continent.[5] It is bounded on the northeast, north, and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States; on the southwest and south by the Mexican states of Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Tabasco, Campeche, Yucatán, and Quintana Roo; and on the southeast by Cuba. The coastal areas along the Southern U.S. states of Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida, which border the Gulf on the north, are occasionally referred to as the "Third Coast" of the United States (in addition to its Atlantic and Pacific coasts), but more often as "the Gulf Coast".

search term: AZ Wikipedia Page

AZ or az may refer to:

search term: misinformation Wikipedia Page

Misinformation is incorrect or misleading information.[5][6] Whereas misinformation can exist with or without specific malicious intent, disinformation is deliberately deceptive and intentionally propagated.[7][8][9][10][11] Misinformation can include inaccurate, incomplete, misleading, or false information as well as selective or half-truths.

A sign campaigning for the successful Vote Leave in the 2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum. The claim made by the sign was widely considered to have been an example of misinformation.[1][2][3][4]

search term: Climate Change Report Wikipedia Page

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search term: nutritional security Wikipedia Page

Food security is the state of having reliable access to a sufficient quantity of affordable, healthy food. The availability of food for people of any class, gender, ethnicity, or religion is another element of food protection. Similarly, household food security is considered to exist when all the members of a family have consistent access to enough food for an active, healthy life.[1] Food-secure individuals do not live in hunger or fear of starvation.[2] Food security includes resilience to future disruptions of food supply. Such a disruption could occur due to various risk factors such as droughts and floods, shipping disruptions, fuel shortages, economic instability, and wars.[3] Food insecurity is the opposite of food security: a state where there is only limited or uncertain availability of suitable food.

Women selling produce at a market in Lilongwe, Malawi

search term: Bering Sea Wikipedia Page

The Bering Sea (/ˈbɛərɪŋ, ˈbɛrɪŋ/ BAIR-ing, BERR-ing,
US also /ˈbɪərɪŋ/ BEER-ing;[1][2][3] Russian: Бе́рингово мо́ре, romanized: Béringovo móre, IPA: [ˈbʲerʲɪnɡəvə ˈmorʲe]) is a marginal sea of the Northern Pacific Ocean. It forms, along with the Bering Strait, the divide between the two largest landmasses on Earth: Eurasia and the Americas.[4][5] It comprises a deep water basin, which then rises through a narrow slope into the shallower water above the continental shelves. The Bering Sea is named after Vitus Bering, a Danish-born Russian navigator, who, in 1728, was the first European to systematically explore it, sailing from the Pacific Ocean northward to the Arctic Ocean.[6]

search term: North American Arctic Wikipedia Page

The North American Arctic is composed of the northern polar regions of Alaska (USA), Northern Canada and Greenland.[1] Major bodies of water include the Arctic Ocean, Hudson Bay, the Gulf of Alaska and North Atlantic Ocean.[2] The North American Arctic lies above the Arctic Circle.[3] It is part of the Arctic, which is the northernmost region on Earth. The western limit is the Seward Peninsula and the Bering Strait. The southern limit is the Arctic Circle latitude of 66° 33’N, which is the approximate limit of the midnight sun and the polar night.[4]

Map of the Arctic Circle and July isotherm. The North American Arctic is on the left

search term: Bureau of Reclamation Wikipedia Page

The Bureau of Reclamation, formerly the United States Reclamation Service, is a federal agency under the U.S. Department of the Interior, which oversees water resource management, specifically as it applies to the oversight and operation of the diversion, delivery, and storage projects that it has built throughout the western United States for irrigation, water supply, and attendant hydroelectric power generation. It is currently the U.S.'s largest wholesaler of water, bringing water to more than 31 million people, and providing one in five Western farmers with irrigation water for 10 million acres of farmland, which produce 60% of the nation's vegetables and 25% of its fruits and nuts. The Bureau is also the second largest producer of hydroelectric power in the western U.S.[3]

search term: Canadian Arctic Wikipedia Page

Northern Canada (French: Nord canadien), colloquially the North or the Territories, is the vast northernmost region of Canada, variously defined by geography and politics. Politically, the term refers to the three territories of Canada: Yukon, Northwest Territories and Nunavut. This area covers about 48 per cent of Canada's total land area, but has less than 0.5 per cent of Canada's population.

search term: US cities Wikipedia Page

Most U.S. states and territories have at least two tiers of local government: counties and municipalities. Louisiana uses the term parish and Alaska uses the term borough for what the U.S. Census Bureau terms county equivalents in those states. Civil townships or towns are used as subdivisions of a county in 20 states, mostly in the Northeast and Midwest.[1]

The "Embodied" statue, representing justice, in the Civic Center neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, which mostly consists of City of Los Angeles government offices. Visible in the background are the Los Angeles City Hall and the Clara Shortridge Foltz Criminal Justice Center.

search term: Mexico City Wikipedia Page

Mexico City[c] is the capital and largest city of Mexico, as well as the most populous city in North America.[14][15] It is one of the most important cultural and financial centers in the world, and is classified as an Alpha world city according to the Globalization and World Cities Research Network (GaWC) 2024 ranking.[16][17] Mexico City is located in the Valley of Mexico within the high Mexican central plateau, at an altitude of 2,240 meters (7,350 ft). The city has 16 boroughs or demarcaciones territoriales, which are in turn divided into neighborhoods or colonias.

The city was the place of Mexico-Tenochtitlan, the Aztec capital.

search term: EPA Wikipedia Page

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is an independent agency of the United States government tasked with environmental protection matters.[2] President Richard Nixon proposed the establishment of EPA on July 9, 1970; it began operation on December 2, 1970, after Nixon signed an executive order.[3] The order establishing the EPA was ratified by committee hearings in the House and Senate.

search term: US Wikipedia Page

The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 contiguous states border Canada to the north and Mexico to the south, with the semi-exclave of Alaska in the northwest and the archipelago of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean. The United States also asserts sovereignty over five major island territories and various uninhabited islands in Oceania and the Caribbean.[j] It is a megadiverse country, with the world's third-largest land area[c] and third-largest population, exceeding 340 million.[k]

Cliff Palace, a settlement of ancestors of the Native American Pueblo peoples in present-day Montezuma County, Colorado, built between c.1200 and 1275[34]

search term: labour productivity Wikipedia Page

Prescriptive and policy

GDP per hour worked (percentage; USA=100)

search term: colonialism Wikipedia Page

Colonialism is the practice of extending and maintaining political, social, economic, and cultural domination over a territory and its people by another people in pursuit of interests defined in an often distant metropole, who also claim superiority.[1][2][3][4] While frequently an imperialist project, colonialism functions through differentiating between the targeted land and people, and that of the colonizers (a critical component of colonization). Rather than annexation,[5] this typically culminates in organizing the colonized into colonies separate to the colonizers' metropole.[6][2] Colonialism sometimes deepens by developing settler colonialism, whereby settlers from one or multiple colonizing metropoles occupy a territory with the intention of partially or completely supplanting the existing indigenous peoples, possibly amounting to genocide.[6][7]: 2[8]

A 1665 illustration of a Dutch East India Company factory in Hugli-Chuchura, depicting various elements of colonialism, including its hierarchies and impact on the colonized and their lands

search term: sea ice Wikipedia Page

Sea ice forms as seawater freezes. Because ice is less dense than water, it floats on the ocean's surface (just like fresh water ice). Sea ice covers about 7% of the Earth's surface and about 12% of the world's oceans.[1][2][3] Much of the world's sea ice is enclosed within the polar ice packs in the Earth's polar regions: the Arctic ice pack of the Arctic Ocean and the Antarctic ice pack of the Southern Ocean. Polar packs naturally undergo significant yearly cycling, reaching their greatest surface extent in winter and retreating in summer.

Broken pieces of Arctic sea ice with a snow cover

search term: storm surge Wikipedia Page

A storm surge, storm flood, tidal surge, or storm tide is a coastal flood or tsunami-like phenomenon of rising water commonly associated with low-pressure weather systems, such as cyclones. It is measured as the rise in water level above the normal tidal level, and does not include waves.[1]

Storm surge of the North Sea on February 9, 2014, as seen on the South Beach (Südstrand) in Wilhelmshaven, Germany.

search term: southeast USA Wikipedia Page

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search term: costs Wikipedia Page

Cost is the value of money that has been used up to produce something or deliver a service, and hence is not available for use anymore. In business, the cost may be one of acquisition, in which case the amount of money expended to acquire it is counted as cost. In this case, money is the input that is gone in order to acquire the thing. This acquisition cost may be the sum of the cost of production as incurred by the original producer, and further costs of transaction as incurred by the acquirer over and above the price paid to the producer. Usually, the price also includes a mark-up for profit over the cost of production.

search term: transportation infrastructure Wikipedia Page

Transport (in British English) or transportation (in American English) is the intentional movement of humans, animals, and goods from one location to another. Modes of transport include air, land (rail and road), water, cable, pipelines, and space. The field can be divided into infrastructure, vehicles, and operations. Transport enables human trade, which is essential for the development of civilizations.

Various modes of transport in Manchester, England

search term: quality of life Wikipedia Page

Quality of life (QOL) is defined by the World Health Organization as "an individual's perception of their position in life in the context of the culture and value systems in which they live and in relation to their goals, expectations, standards and concerns".[1]

Map showing happiness of countries by their score according to the 2023 World Happiness Report

search term: crime Wikipedia Page

In ordinary language, a crime is an unlawful act punishable by a state or other authority.[1] The term crime does not, in modern criminal law, have any simple and universally accepted definition,[2] though statutory definitions have been provided for certain purposes.[3] The most popular view is that crime is a category created by law; in other words, something is a crime if declared as such by the relevant and applicable law.[2] One proposed definition is that a crime or offence (or criminal offence) is an act harmful not only to some individual but also to a community, society, or the state ("a public wrong"). Such acts are forbidden and punishable by law.[1][4]

search term: western United States Wikipedia Page

The Western United States (also called the American West, the Western States, the Far West, the Western territories, and the West) is one of the four census regions defined by the United States Census Bureau.

search term: CRC Press Wikipedia Page

The CRC Press is a publishing imprint principally for technical books. Many of its books are related to engineering, science and mathematics. Its scope also includes books on business, forensics and information technology. In 2003 the imprint was acquired by Taylor & Francis, a subsidiary of Informa. The CRC Press and Routledge imprints are key components of Taylor & Francis's academic publishing.[2] As of 2025, the branding of CRC Press presents it as part of the Routledge branding.

search term: socioeconomic conditions Wikipedia Page

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search term: wildfire activity Wikipedia Page

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search term: aridification Wikipedia Page

Aridification is the process of a region becoming increasingly arid, or dry. It refers to long term change,[1] rather than seasonal variation.

search term: erosion Wikipedia Page

Erosion is the action of surface processes (such as water flow or wind) that removes soil, rock, or dissolved material from one location on the Earth's crust and then transports it to another location where it is deposited. Erosion is distinct from weathering which involves no movement.[1][2] Removal of rock or soil as clastic sediment is referred to as physical or mechanical erosion; this contrasts with chemical erosion, where soil or rock material is removed from an area by dissolution.[3] Eroded sediment or solutes may be transported just a few millimetres, or for thousands of kilometres.

An actively eroding rill on an intensively-farmed field in eastern Germany. This phenomenon is aggravated by poor agricultural practices because when ploughing, the furrows were traced in the direction of the slope rather than that of the terrain contour lines.

search term: scientific consensus Wikipedia Page

Scientific consensus is the generally held judgment, position, and opinion of the majority or the supermajority of scientists in a particular field of study at any particular time.[1][2]

The public substantially underestimates the degree of scientific consensus that humans are causing climate change.[24] Studies from 2019 to 2021[25][26][27] found scientific consensus to range from 98.7 to 100%.

search term: Yucatan Wikipedia Page

Yucatán,[b] officially the Free and Sovereign State of Yucatán,[c] is one of the 31 states which, along with Mexico City, constitute the 32 federal entities of Mexico. It comprises 106 separate municipalities, and its capital city is Mérida.

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search term: southwest USA Wikipedia Page

The Southwestern United States, also known as the American Southwest or simply the Southwest, is a geographic and cultural region of the United States that includes Arizona and New Mexico, along with adjacent portions of California, Colorado, Nevada, Oklahoma, Texas, and Utah. The largest cities by metropolitan area are Phoenix, Las Vegas, El Paso, Albuquerque, and Tucson.[2] Before 1848, in the historical region of Santa Fe de Nuevo México as well as parts of Alta California and Coahuila y Tejas, settlement was almost non-existent outside of New Mexico's pueblos and Spanish or Mexican municipalities. Much of the area had been a part of New Spain and Mexico until the United States acquired the area through the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo in 1848 and the smaller Gadsden Purchase in 1854.

search term: protected species Wikipedia Page

An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction. Endangered species may be at risk due to factors such as habitat loss, poaching, invasive species, and climate change.[1] The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List lists the global conservation status of many species, and various other agencies assess the status of species within particular areas. Many nations have laws that protect conservation-reliant species which, for example, forbid hunting, restrict land development, or create protected areas. Some endangered species are the target of extensive conservation efforts such as captive breeding and habitat restoration.

search term: extreme weather Wikipedia Page

Extreme weather includes unexpected, unusual, severe, or unseasonal weather; weather at the extremes of the historical distribution—the range that has been seen in the past. Extreme events are based on a location's recorded weather history. The main types of extreme weather include heat waves, cold waves, droughts, and heavy precipitation or storm events, such as tropical cyclones. Extreme weather can have various effects, from natural hazards such as floods and landslides to social costs on human health and the economy. Severe weather is a particular type of extreme weather which poses risks to life and property.

A tornado is an example of an extreme weather event.

search term: British Columbia Wikipedia Page

British Columbia[c] is the westernmost province of Canada. Situated in the Pacific Northwest between the Pacific Ocean and the Rocky Mountains, the province has a diverse geography, with rugged landscapes that include rocky coastlines, sandy beaches, forests, lakes, mountains, inland deserts and grassy plains.[6] British Columbia borders the province of Alberta to the east; the territories of Yukon and Northwest Territories to the north; the US states of Washington, Idaho and Montana to the south, and Alaska to the northwest. With an estimated population of over 5.7 million as of 2025, it is Canada's third-most populous province. The capital of British Columbia is Victoria, while the province's largest city is Vancouver. Vancouver and its suburbs together make up the third-largest metropolitan area in Canada, with the 2021 census recording 2.6 million people in Metro Vancouver.[7] British Columbia is Canada's third-largest province in terms of total area, after Quebec and Ontario.[8]

British Columbia's geography is epitomized by the variety and intensity of its physical relief, which has defined patterns of settlement and industry since colonization.

search term: Pacific Northwest Wikipedia Page

The Pacific Northwest (PNW) is a geographic region in Western North America bounded by its coastal waters of the Pacific Ocean to the west and, loosely, by the Rocky Mountains to the east. Though no official boundary exists, the most common conception includes the U.S. states of Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and the Canadian province of British Columbia. Some broader conceptions reach north into Alaska and Yukon, south into Northern California, and east into western Montana. Other conceptions may be limited to the coastal areas west of the Cascade and Coast mountains.

The Pacific Northwest from outer space.

search term: urban heat island effects Wikipedia Page

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search term: West Nile virus Wikipedia Page

West Nile virus (WNV) is a single-stranded RNA virus that causes West Nile fever. It is a member of the family Flaviviridae, from the genus Orthoflavivirus, which also contains the Zika virus, dengue virus, and yellow fever virus. The virus is primarily transmitted by mosquitoes, mostly species of Culex. The primary hosts of WNV are birds, so that the virus remains within a "bird–mosquito–bird" transmission cycle.[1] The virus is genetically related to the Japanese encephalitis family of viruses. Humans and horses both exhibit disease symptoms from the virus, and symptoms rarely occur in other animals.

search term: snowmobiling Wikipedia Page

A snowmobile, also known as a snowmachine (chiefly Alaskan), motor sled (chiefly Canadian), ski-doo (Ontario and Quebec, dated proprietary eponym), motor sledge, skimobile, snow scooter, or simply a sled is a motorized vehicle designed for winter travel and recreation on snow.

A snowmobile tour at Yellowstone National Park

search term: Ontario Wikipedia Page

Ontario[a] is the southernmost province of Canada.[9] Located in Central Canada,[10][b] Ontario is the country's most populous province. As of the 2021 Canadian census, it is home to 38.5% of the country's population, and is the second-largest province by total area (after Quebec).[3][11] Ontario is Canada's fourth-largest jurisdiction in total area of all the Canadian provinces and territories.[11] It is home to the nation's capital, Ottawa, and its most populous city, Toronto,[12] which is Ontario's provincial capital.

Typical landscape of the Canadian Shield at Queen Elizabeth II Wildlands Provincial Park, located in Central Ontario.

search term: Alberta Wikipedia Page

Alberta is a province in Canada. It is a part of Western Canada and is one of the three prairie provinces. Alberta is bordered by British Columbia to its west, Saskatchewan to its east, the Northwest Territories to its north, and the U.S. state of Montana to its south. Alberta and Saskatchewan are the only two landlocked Canadian provinces.[7] The eastern part of the province is occupied by the Great Plains, while the western part borders the Rocky Mountains. The province has a predominantly continental climate, but seasonal temperatures tend to swing rapidly because it is so arid. Those swings are less pronounced in western Alberta because of its occasional Chinook winds.[8] [9] Alberta is the fourth largest province by area, at 661,848 square kilometres (255,541 square miles),[10] and the fourth most populous, with 4,262,635 residents.[2] Alberta's capital is Edmonton; its largest city is Calgary.[11] The two cities are Alberta's largest census metropolitan areas.[12] More than half of Albertans live in Edmonton or Calgary, which encourages a continuing rivalry between the two cities. English is the province's official language. In 2016, 76.0% of Albertans were anglophone, 1.8% were francophone and 22.2% were allophone.[13]

A topographic map of Alberta, showing cities, towns, municipal district (county) and rural municipality borders, and natural features

search term: violent crime Wikipedia Page

A violent crime, violent felony, crime of violence or crime of a violent nature is a crime in which an offender or perpetrator uses or threatens to use harmful force upon a victim. This entails both crimes in which the violent act is the objective, such as murder, assault, rape and assassination, as well as crimes in which violence is used as a method of coercion or show of force, such as robbery, extortion and terrorism. Violent crimes may, or may not, be committed with weapons. Depending on the jurisdiction, violent crimes may be regarded with varying severities from homicide to harassment.

Visual representation of a confrontation taking place that may lead to a personal crime occurring

search term: indigenous peoples Wikipedia Page

There is no generally accepted definition of Indigenous peoples,[a][1][2][3] although in the 21st century the focus has been on self-identification, cultural difference from other groups in a state, a special relationship with their traditional territory, and an experience of subjugation and discrimination under a dominant cultural model.[4]

A Kaqchikel family in the Patzutzun hamlet of Sololá, Guatemala (1993)

search term: United Nations General Assembly Wikipedia Page

The United Nations General Assembly (UNGA or GA; French: Assemblée générale des Nations Unies,[1] AGNU or AG) is one of the six principal organs of the United Nations (UN), serving as its main deliberative, policymaking, and representative organ. Currently in its 80th session, its powers, composition, functions, and procedures are set out in Chapter IV of the United Nations Charter.

Methodist Central Hall, London, the location of the first meeting of the United Nations General Assembly in 1946[6]

search term: Canada Wikipedia Page

Canada[a] is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the second-largest country by total area, with the longest coastline of any country. Its border with the United States is the longest international land border. The country is characterized by a wide range of both meteorologic and geological regions. With a population of over 41 million, it has widely varying population densities, with the majority residing in its urban areas and large areas being sparsely populated. Canada's capital is Ottawa and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.

search term: Mexico Wikipedia Page

Mexico,[a][b] officially the United Mexican States,[c] is a country in North America. It is the northernmost country in Latin America, and borders the United States to the north, and Guatemala and Belize to the southeast; while having maritime boundaries with the Pacific Ocean to the west, the Caribbean Sea to the southeast, and the Gulf of Mexico to the east. Mexico covers 1,972,550 km2 (761,610 sq mi),[12] and is the thirteenth-largest country in the world by land area. With a population exceeding 130 million, Mexico is the tenth-most populous country in the world and is home to the largest number of native Spanish speakers.[1] Mexico City is the capital and largest city, which ranks among the most populous metropolitan areas in the world.

Teotihuacan was the 6th largest city in the world at its peak, 1 AD to 500 AD

search term: North America Wikipedia Page

North America is a continent[b] in the Northern and Western hemispheres.[c] North America is bordered to the north by the Arctic Ocean, to the east by the Atlantic Ocean, to the southeast by South America and the Caribbean Sea, and to the south and west by the Pacific Ocean. The region includes Middle America (comprising the Caribbean, Central America, and Mexico) and Northern America.

search term: United States Wikipedia Page

The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 contiguous states border Canada to the north and Mexico to the south, with the semi-exclave of Alaska in the northwest and the archipelago of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean. The United States also asserts sovereignty over five major island territories and various uninhabited islands in Oceania and the Caribbean.[j] It is a megadiverse country, with the world's third-largest land area[c] and third-largest population, exceeding 340 million.[k]

Cliff Palace, a settlement of ancestors of the Native American Pueblo peoples in present-day Montezuma County, Colorado, built between c.1200 and 1275[34]

search term: Sea level rise Wikipedia Page

The sea level has been rising since the end of the last ice age, which was around 20,000 years ago.[3] Between 1901 and 2018, the average sea level rose by 15–25 cm (6–10 in), with an increase of 2.3 mm (0.091 in) per year since the 1970s.[4]: 1216 This was faster than the sea level had ever risen over at least the past 3,000 years.[4]: 1216 The rate accelerated to 4.62 mm (0.182 in)/yr for the decade 2013–2022.[5] Climate change due to human activities is the main cause.[6]: 5, 8 Between 1993 and 2018, melting ice sheets and glaciers accounted for 44% of sea level rise, with another 42% resulting from thermal expansion of water.[7]: 1576

The global average sea level has risen about 25 centimetres (9.8 in) since 1880.[1]

search term: USA Wikipedia Page

The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 contiguous states border Canada to the north and Mexico to the south, with the semi-exclave of Alaska in the northwest and the archipelago of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean. The United States also asserts sovereignty over five major island territories and various uninhabited islands in Oceania and the Caribbean.[j] It is a megadiverse country, with the world's third-largest land area[c] and third-largest population, exceeding 340 million.[k]

Cliff Palace, a settlement of ancestors of the Native American Pueblo peoples in present-day Montezuma County, Colorado, built between c.1200 and 1275[34]

search term: Florida Wikipedia Page

Florida (/ˈflɒrɪdə/ ⓘ FLORR-ih-də;
Spanish: [floˈɾiða] ⓘ) is a state in the Southeastern region of the United States. It borders the Gulf of Mexico to the west, Alabama to the northwest, Georgia to the north, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the Straits of Florida to the south, and The Bahamas to the southeast. About two-thirds of Florida occupies a peninsula between the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. It has the longest coastline in the contiguous United States, spanning approximately 1,350 miles (2,170 km), not including its many barrier islands. It is the only state that borders both the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. With a population of over 23 million, it is the third-most populous state in the United States and ranks seventh in population density as of 2020. Florida spans 65,758 square miles (170,310 km2), ranking 22nd in area among the states. The Miami metropolitan area, anchored by the cities of Miami, Fort Lauderdale, and West Palm Beach, is the state's largest metropolitan area, with a population of 6.138 million; the most populous city is Jacksonville. Florida's other major population centers include Tampa Bay, Orlando, Cape Coral, and the state capital of Tallahassee.

Map of Florida, likely based on the expeditions of Hernando de Soto (1539–1543)

search term: western USA Wikipedia Page

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search term: western Wikipedia Page

Western may refer to:

search term: Alaska Wikipedia Page

Alaska (/əˈlæskə/ ⓘ ə-LASS-kə) is a non-contiguous U.S. state on the northwest extremity of North America. Part of the Western United States region, it is one of the two non-contiguous U.S. states, alongside Hawaii. Alaska is considered to be the northernmost, westernmost, and easternmost (the Aleutian Islands cross the 180th meridian into the eastern hemisphere) state in the United States. It borders the Canadian territory of Yukon and the province of British Columbia to the east. It shares a western maritime border, in the Bering Strait, with Russia's Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. The Chukchi and Beaufort Seas of the Arctic Ocean lie to the north, and the Pacific Ocean lies to the south. It is a semi-exclave of the U.S., and is the largest exclave in the world.

The Russian settlement of St. Paul's Harbor, present-day Kodiak town, Kodiak Island, 1814

search term: hurricanes Wikipedia Page

A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system with a low-pressure area, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls. Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is called a hurricane (/ˈhʌrɪkən, -keɪn/), typhoon (/taɪˈfuːn/), tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, or simply cyclone. A hurricane is a strong tropical cyclone that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean or northeastern Pacific Ocean. A typhoon is the same thing which occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean. In the Indian Ocean and South Pacific, comparable storms are referred to as "tropical cyclones". In modern times, on average around 80 to 90 named tropical cyclones form each year around the world, over half of which develop hurricane-force winds of 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) or more.[1]

Hurricane Florence viewed from the International Space Station in 2018. The eye, eyewall, and surrounding rainbands are characteristics of tropical cyclones.

search term: California Wikipedia Page

California (/ˌkælɪˈfɔːrniə/) is a state in the Western United States that lies on the Pacific Coast. It borders Oregon to the north, Nevada and Arizona to the east, and shares an international border with the Mexican state of Baja California to the south. With almost 40 million residents across an area of 163,696 square miles (423,970 km2), it is the largest state by population, third-largest state by area and the largest state economy.

The word "California" and its namesake ruler, Queen Calafia, originate in the 1510 epic Las Sergas de Esplandián, written by Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo.

search term: Arctic Wikipedia Page

The Arctic (/ˈɑːr(k)tɪk/;[1][Note 1] from Ancient Greek ἄρκτος (árktos) 'bear') is the polar region of Earth that surrounds the North Pole, lying north of the Arctic Circle. The Arctic region, from the IERS Reference Meridian travelling east, consists of parts of northern Norway (Nordland, Troms, Finnmark, Svalbard and Jan Mayen), northernmost Sweden (Västerbotten, Norrbotten and Lappland), northern Finland (North Ostrobothnia, Kainuu and Lappi), Russia (Murmansk, Siberia, Nenets Okrug, Novaya Zemlya), the United States (Alaska), Canada (Yukon, Northwest Territories, Nunavut), Danish Realm (Greenland), and northern Iceland (Grímsey and Kolbeinsey), along with the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas.

A snowy landscape of Inari located in Lapland (Finland)

search term: fisheries management Wikipedia Page

The management of fisheries is broadly defined as the set of tasks which guide vested parties and managers in the optimal use of aquatic renewable resources, primarily fish.[1] According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) in the 2001 Guidebook to Fisheries Management there is currently "no clear and generally accepted definitions of fisheries management".[2] Instead, the authors use a working definition, such that fisheries management is:

A signboard listing fishing regulations at Horton Creek, Arizona

search term: projected climate change Wikipedia Page

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search term: Pacific Wikipedia Page

Main five oceans division:

search term: Jamaica Wikipedia Page

Jamaica[a] is an island country in the Caribbean, covering 10,990 square kilometres (4,240 sq mi). It is the third-largest island in the Greater Antilles and the Caribbean, after Cuba and the island of Hispaniola.[8] Jamaica lies about 145 km (78 nmi) south of Cuba, 191 km (103 nmi) west of Hispaniola (the island containing Haiti and the Dominican Republic), and 215 km (116 nmi) southeast of the Cayman Islands (a British Overseas Territory).[8] With 2.8 million people,[9][10] Jamaica is the third most populous Anglophone country in the Americas and the fourth most populous country in the Caribbean. Kingston is the country's capital and largest city.

search term: Samoa Wikipedia Page

Samoa,[b] officially the Independent State of Samoa,[c] is an island country in Polynesia, part of Oceania, in the South Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main islands (Savai'i and Upolu), two smaller, inhabited islands (Manono and Apolima), and several smaller, uninhabited islands, including the Aleipata Islands (Nuʻutele, Nuʻulua, Fanuatapu and Namua). Samoa is located 64 km (40 mi; 35 nmi) west of American Samoa, 889 km (552 mi; 480 nmi) northeast of Tonga, 1,152 km (716 mi; 622 nmi) northeast of Fiji, 483 km (300 mi; 261 nmi) east of Wallis and Futuna, 1,151 km (715 mi; 621 nmi) southeast of Tuvalu, 519 km (322 mi; 280 nmi) south of Tokelau, 4,190 km (2,600 mi; 2,260 nmi) southwest of Hawaii, and 610 km (380 mi; 330 nmi) northwest of Niue. The capital and largest city is Apia.

search term: Marshall Islands Wikipedia Page

The Marshall Islands,[a] officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands,[b] is an island country west of the International Date Line and north of the equator in the Micronesia region of the Northwestern Pacific Ocean.

search term: Caribbean region Wikipedia Page

The Caribbean[a] is a region in the middle of the Americas centered around the Caribbean Sea in the North Atlantic Ocean, mostly overlapping with the West Indies. Bordered by North America to the north and also the west through Central America, and South America to the south, it comprises numerous islands, cays, islets, reefs, and banks.

search term: Dominica Wikipedia Page

Dominica,[a] officially the Commonwealth of Dominica,[b] is an island country in the Caribbean.[16] It is part of the Windward Islands chain in the Lesser Antilles archipelago in the Caribbean Sea. The capital, Roseau, is located on the western side of the island. Dominica's closest neighbours are two constituent territories of the European Union, both overseas departments of France: Guadeloupe to the northwest and Martinique to the south-southeast. Dominica comprises a land area of 750 km2 (290 sq mi), and the highest point is Morne Diablotins, at 1,447 m (4,747 ft) in elevation. The population was 71,293 at the 2011 census.[8]

A linen market in 1770s Dominica

search term: IAS Wikipedia Page

search term: Small islands Wikipedia Page

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search term: French Polynesia Wikipedia Page

$5.935 billion (2023 est.)

$5.892 billion (2022 est.)

search term: Pacific islands Wikipedia Page

The islands in the Pacific Ocean are categorized into three major island groups: Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Depending on the context, the term Pacific Islands may refer to one of several concepts: (1) those Pacific islands whose people have Austronesian origins, (2) the Pacific islands once or currently colonized after 1500 CE, (3) the geographical region of Oceania, or (4) any island located in the Pacific Ocean.

The islands in the Pacific Ocean divided into three major groups

search term: Pacific Island Countries Wikipedia Page

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search term: Tuvalu Wikipedia Page

Tuvalu (/tuːˈvɑːluː/ ⓘ too-VAH-loo)[5] is an island country in the Polynesian sub-region of Oceania in the Pacific Ocean, about midway between Hawaii and Australia. It lies east-northeast of the Santa Cruz Islands (which belong to the Solomon Islands), northeast of Vanuatu, southeast of Nauru, south of Kiribati, west of Tokelau, northwest of Samoa and Wallis and Futuna, and north of Fiji.

search term: atoll islands Wikipedia Page

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search term: islands Wikipedia Page

This is a list of the lists of islands in the world grouped by country, by continent, by body of water, and by other classifications. For rank-order lists, see the other lists of islands below.

An aerial view of islands in the Seychelles

search term: Kiribati Wikipedia Page

Kiribati,[a] officially the Republic of Kiribati,[b] is an island country in the Micronesia subregion of Oceania in the central Pacific Ocean. Its permanent population is over 119,000 as of the 2020 census, and more than half live on Tarawa. The state comprises 32 atolls and one remote raised coral island, Banaba. Its total land area is 811 km2 (313 sq mi)[13] dispersed over 3,441,810 km2 (1,328,890 sq mi) of ocean.

search term: Bahamas Wikipedia Page

The Bahamas,[a] officially the Commonwealth of The Bahamas,[13] is an island country located within the Lucayan Archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean. It contains 97 per cent of the archipelago's land area and 88 per cent of its population. It comprises more than 3,000 islands, cays and islets in the Atlantic Ocean, located north of Cuba and north-west of the island of Hispaniola (split between the Dominican Republic and Haiti) and the Turks and Caicos Islands, southeast of the U.S. state of Florida and east of the Florida Keys. The capital and largest city is Nassau on the island of New Providence. The Royal Bahamas Defence Force describes the Bahamas' territory as encompassing 470,000 km2 (180,000 sq mi) of ocean space.

A depiction of Columbus' first landing, claiming possession of the New World for the Crown of Castile in caravels; the Niña and the Pinta, on Watling Island, an island of the Bahamas that the natives called Guanahani and that he named San Salvador, on 12 October 1492.[28]

search term: Caribbean Small Island Developing States Wikipedia Page

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search term: Caribbean islands Wikipedia Page

Most of the Caribbean countries are islands in the Caribbean Sea, with only a few in inland lakes. The largest islands include Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and Puerto Rico. Some of the smaller islands are referred to as a rock or reef.

The Caribbean Sea

search term: Hawaii Wikipedia Page

Hawaii (/həˈwaɪ.i/ ⓘ hə-WY-ee;[11] Hawaiian: Hawaiʻi [həˈvɐjʔi, həˈwɐjʔi]) is an island state of the United States, in the Pacific Ocean about 2,000 miles (3,200 km) southwest of the U.S. mainland. One of the two non-contiguous U.S. states (along with Alaska), it is the only state not on the North American mainland, the only state that is an archipelago, and the only state in the tropics.

search term: Seychelles Wikipedia Page

– in Africa (light blue & dark grey)
– in the African Union (light blue)

search term: Dominican Republic Wikipedia Page

The Dominican Republic[a] is a country in the Caribbean located on the island of Hispaniola in the Greater Antilles of the Caribbean Sea in the North Atlantic Ocean. It shares a maritime border with Puerto Rico to the east and a land border with Haiti to the west, occupying the eastern five-eighths of Hispaniola which, along with Saint Martin, is one of only two islands in the Caribbean shared by two sovereign states.[15][16] In the Antilles, the country is the second-largest nation by area after Cuba at 48,671 square kilometers (18,792 sq mi) and second-largest by population after Haiti with approximately 11.4 million people in 2024, of whom 3.6 million reside in the metropolitan area of Santo Domingo, the capital city.[4]

search term: small island contexts Wikipedia Page

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search term: Pacific Ocean Wikipedia Page

Main five oceans division:

search term: South Pacific Wikipedia Page

Main five oceans division:

search term: island communities Wikipedia Page

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search term: freshwater stress Wikipedia Page

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search term: Caribbean SIDS Wikipedia Page

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search term: reef islands Wikipedia Page

The Reef Islands are a loose collection of 16 islands in the in Temotu Province, in the independent nation of Solomon Islands. These islands have historically also been known by the names of Swallow Islands and Matema Islands.

NASA picture of the Reef Islands.

search term: land reclamation Wikipedia Page

Land reclamation, often known as reclamation, and also known as land fill (not to be confused with a waste landfill), is the process of creating new land from oceans, seas, riverbeds or lake beds. The land reclaimed is known as reclamation ground, reclaimed land, or land fill.

Reclaiming in Mounts Bay, Perth, Australia in 1964

search term: Tropical Cyclones Wikipedia Page

A tropical cyclone is a rapidly rotating storm system with a low-pressure area, a closed low-level atmospheric circulation, strong winds, and a spiral arrangement of thunderstorms that produce heavy rain and squalls. Depending on its location and strength, a tropical cyclone is called a hurricane (/ˈhʌrɪkən, -keɪn/), typhoon (/taɪˈfuːn/), tropical storm, cyclonic storm, tropical depression, or simply cyclone. A hurricane is a strong tropical cyclone that occurs in the Atlantic Ocean or northeastern Pacific Ocean. A typhoon is the same thing which occurs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean. In the Indian Ocean and South Pacific, comparable storms are referred to as "tropical cyclones". In modern times, on average around 80 to 90 named tropical cyclones form each year around the world, over half of which develop hurricane-force winds of 65 kn (120 km/h; 75 mph) or more.[1]

Hurricane Florence viewed from the International Space Station in 2018. The eye, eyewall, and surrounding rainbands are characteristics of tropical cyclones.

search term: human disturbances Wikipedia Page

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search term: Geomorphology Wikipedia Page

Geomorphology (from Ancient Greek γῆ (gê) 'earth' μορφή (morphḗ) 'form' and λόγος (lógos) 'study')[2] is the scientific study of the origin and evolution of topographic and bathymetric features generated by physical, chemical or biological processes operating at or near Earth's surface. Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way they do, to understand landform and terrain history and dynamics and to predict changes through a combination of field observations, physical experiments and numerical modeling. Geomorphologists work within disciplines such as physical geography, geology, geodesy, engineering geology, archaeology, climatology, and geotechnical engineering. This broad base of interests contributes to many research styles and interests within the field.

Badlands incised into shale at the foot of the North Caineville Plateau, Utah, within the pass carved by the Fremont River and known as the Blue Gate. G. K. Gilbert studied the landscapes of this area in great detail, forming the observational foundation for many of his studies on geomorphology.[1]

search term: Haiti Wikipedia Page

Haiti,[a] officially the Republic of Haiti,[b][c] is a country in the Caribbean on the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean Sea, east of Cuba and Jamaica, and south of the Bahamas. It occupies the western three-eighths of the island, which it shares with the Dominican Republic.[19][20] Haiti is the third largest country in the Caribbean, and with an estimated population of 11.4 million, is the most populous Caribbean country.[21][22][23] The capital and largest city is Port-au-Prince.

The five caciquedoms of Hispaniola at the time of the arrival of Christopher Columbus

search term: Small Islands Wikipedia Page

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search term: terrestrial biodiversity Wikipedia Page

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search term: cultural resources Wikipedia Page

A heritage asset is something which has value because of its contribution to a nation's society, knowledge, or culture. It is usually a physical object, but in some contexts, it may be intangible social and spiritual inheritance.[1]

search term: enablers Wikipedia Page

Enablers are originally a post-punk band formed in San Francisco, California which features the poetry/spoken word of Pete Simonelli. The current members now mostly exist on opposite sides of the American coasts.

search term: ESL events Wikipedia Page

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search term: Reunion Island Wikipedia Page

Réunion (/riːˈjuːnjən/;
French: [la ʁe.ynjɔ̃] ⓘ; Reunionese Creole: La Rényon; known as Île Bourbon before 1848) is an island in the Indian Ocean that is an overseas department and region of France. Part of the Mascarene Islands, it is located approximately 679 kilometres (367 nautical miles) east of the island of Madagascar and 175 kilometres (94 nmi) southwest of the island of Mauritius. As of January 2025[update], it had a population of 896,175.[1] Its capital and largest city is Saint-Denis.

search term: Pacific Island countries Wikipedia Page

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search term: Barbados Wikipedia Page

Barbados[a] is an island country in the Caribbean located in the Atlantic Ocean. It is part of the Lesser Antilles of the West Indies and the easternmost island of the Caribbean region. It lies on the boundary of the South American and Caribbean plates. Its capital and largest city is Bridgetown.

search term: tsunami Wikipedia Page

A tsunami (/(t)suːˈnɑːmi, (t)sʊˈ-/ (t)soo-NAH-mee, (t)suu-;[1][2][3][4] from Japanese: 津波, lit. 'harbour wave',[5]
pronounced [tsɯnami]) is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and underwater explosions (including detonations, landslides, glacier calvings, meteorite impacts and other disturbances) above or below water all have the potential to generate a tsunami.[6] Unlike normal ocean waves, which are generated by wind, or tides, which are in turn generated by the gravitational pull of the Moon and the Sun, a tsunami is generated by the displacement of water from a large event.

The 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami at Ao Nang, Krabi Province, Thailand

search term: Mauritius Wikipedia Page

Mauritius,[a] officially the Republic of Mauritius,[b] is an island country in the Indian Ocean, about 2,000 kilometres (1,100 nautical miles) off the southeastern coast of East Africa, east of Madagascar. It includes the main island (also called Mauritius), as well as Rodrigues, Agaléga, and St. Brandon (Cargados Carajos shoals).[12][13] The islands of Mauritius and Rodrigues, along with nearby Réunion (a French overseas department), are part of the Mascarene Islands. The main island of Mauritius, where the population is concentrated, hosts the capital and largest city, Port Louis. The country spans 2,040 square kilometres (790 sq mi) and has an exclusive economic zone covering approximately 2,000,000 square kilometres (580,000 square nautical miles).[14][15]

search term: Pacific Small Island Developing States Wikipedia Page

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search term: Caribbean Sea Wikipedia Page

The Caribbean Sea[1] is a sea of the North Atlantic Ocean in the tropics of the Western Hemisphere, located south of the Gulf of Mexico and southwest of the Sargasso Sea. It is bounded by the Greater Antilles to the north from Cuba to Puerto Rico, the Lesser Antilles to the east from the Virgin Islands to Trinidad and Tobago, South America to the south from the Venezuelan coastline to the Colombian coastline, and Central America and the Yucatán Peninsula to the west from Panama to Mexico. The geopolitical region around the Caribbean Sea, including the numerous islands of the West Indies and adjacent coastal areas in the mainland of the Americas, is known as the Caribbean.

search term: small Wikipedia Page

Small means of insignificant size.

search term: heritage Wikipedia Page

Heritage may refer to:

search term: Maldives Islands Wikipedia Page

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search term: protection services Wikipedia Page

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search term: CFP Wikipedia Page

search term: habitability Wikipedia Page

Habitability is the adequacy of an environment for human living. Where housing is concerned, there are generally local ordinances which define habitability. If a residence complies with those laws, it is said to be habitable. In extreme environments, such as space exploration, habitability must take into account psychological and social stressors, due to the harsh nature of the environment.

search term: disaster preparedness Wikipedia Page

Emergency management (also Disaster management or Emergency Preparedness) is a science and a system charged with creating the framework within which communities reduce vulnerability to hazards and cope with disasters.[1] Emergency management, despite its name, does not actually focus on the management of emergencies; emergencies can be understood as minor events with limited impacts and are managed through the day-to-day functions of a community. Instead, emergency management focuses on the management of disasters, which are events that produce more impacts than a community can handle on its own.[2] The management of disasters tends to require some combination of activity from individuals and households, organizations, local, and/or higher levels of government. Although many different terminologies exist globally, the activities of emergency management can be generally categorized into preparedness, response, mitigation, and recovery, although other terms such as disaster risk reduction and prevention are also common. The outcome of emergency management is to prevent disasters and where this is not possible, to reduce their harmful impacts.

A mobile emergency operations center, in this case operated by the Air National Guard

search term: small island communities Wikipedia Page

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search term: Pacific region Wikipedia Page

Main five oceans division:

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search term: Pacific Countries Wikipedia Page

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search term: Fiji Islands Wikipedia Page

Fiji,[a] officially the Republic of Fiji,[b] is an island country in Melanesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies about 1,100 nautical miles (2,000 km; 1,300 mi) north-northeast of New Zealand. Fiji consists of an archipelago of more than 330 islands—of which about 110 are permanently inhabited—and more than 500 islets, amounting to a total land area of about 18,300 square kilometres (7,100 sq mi). The most outlying island group is Ono-i-Lau. About 87% of the total population live on the two major islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. About three-quarters of Fijians live on Viti Levu's coasts, either in the capital city of Suva, or in smaller urban centres such as Nadi (where tourism is the major local industry) or Lautoka (where the sugar-cane industry is dominant). The interior of Viti Levu is sparsely inhabited because of its terrain.[14]

search term: small islands Wikipedia Page

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search term: Maldives Wikipedia Page

Maldives,[c] officially the Republic of Maldives,[d] and historically known as the Maldive Islands, is an archipelagic country in South Asia, located in the eastern Arabian Sea, within the northern Indian Ocean. The Maldives is southwest of Sri Lanka and India, about 750 kilometres (470 miles; 400 nautical miles) from the Asian continent's mainland. The Maldives' chain of 26 atolls stretches across the equator from Ihavandhippolhu Atoll in the north to Addu Atoll in the south.

Isdhoo Lōmāfānu is the oldest copper-plate book to have been discovered in the Maldives to date. The book was written in 1194 CE (590 AH) in the Evēla form of the Divehi akuru, during the reign of Siri Fennaadheettha Mahaa Radun (Dhinei Kalaminja).

search term: Small Island Developing States Wikipedia Page

The Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are a grouping of developing countries which are small island countries and small states that tend to share similar sustainable development challenges. These include small but growing populations, limited resources, remoteness, susceptibility to natural disasters, vulnerability to external shocks, excessive dependence on international trade, and fragile environments. Their growth and development are also held back by high communication, energy and transportation costs, irregular international transport volumes, disproportionately expensive public administration and infrastructure due to their small size, and little to no opportunity to create economies of scale. They consist of some of the most vulnerable countries to anthropogenic climate change.

Map of the Small Island Developing States

search term: Solomon Islands Wikipedia Page

Solomon Islands,[7] also known simply as the Solomons,[8] is an island country consisting of six major islands and over 1,000 smaller islands in Melanesia, Oceania, to the north-east of the country of Australia. It is directly adjacent to the Autonomous Region of Bougainville to the west, Australia to the south-west, New Caledonia and Vanuatu to the south-east, Fiji, Tuvalu, and Wallis and Futuna to the east, and the Federated States of Micronesia and Nauru to the north. It has a total area of 28,896 square kilometres (11,157 sq mi),[3] and a population of 734,887 according to the official estimates for mid-2023.[9] Its capital and largest city, Honiara, is located on the largest island, Guadalcanal. The country takes its name from the wider area of the Solomon Islands archipelago, which is a collection of Melanesian islands that also includes the Autonomous Region of Bougainville (currently a part of Papua New Guinea), but excludes the Santa Cruz Islands.

search term: Caribbean Wikipedia Page

The Caribbean[a] is a region in the middle of the Americas centered around the Caribbean Sea in the North Atlantic Ocean, mostly overlapping with the West Indies. Bordered by North America to the north and also the west through Central America, and South America to the south, it comprises numerous islands, cays, islets, reefs, and banks.

search term: Vanuatu Wikipedia Page

Vanuatu (
English: /ˌvɑːnuˈɑːtuː/ ⓘ VAH-noo-AH-too or /vænˈwɑːtuː/ van-WAH-too; Bislama and French pronunciation [vanuatu]), officially the Republic of Vanuatu (French: République de Vanuatu; Bislama: Ripablik blong Vanuatu), is an island country in Melanesia located in the South Pacific Ocean. The archipelago, which is of volcanic origin, is 1,750 km (1,090 mi) east of northern Australia, 540 km (340 mi) northeast of New Caledonia, east of New Guinea, southeast of Solomon Islands, and west of Fiji.

search term: Indian Ocean Wikipedia Page

Main five oceans division:

search term: small island developing states Wikipedia Page

The Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are a grouping of developing countries which are small island countries and small states that tend to share similar sustainable development challenges. These include small but growing populations, limited resources, remoteness, susceptibility to natural disasters, vulnerability to external shocks, excessive dependence on international trade, and fragile environments. Their growth and development are also held back by high communication, energy and transportation costs, irregular international transport volumes, disproportionately expensive public administration and infrastructure due to their small size, and little to no opportunity to create economies of scale. They consist of some of the most vulnerable countries to anthropogenic climate change.

Map of the Small Island Developing States

search term: Fiji Wikipedia Page

Fiji,[a] officially the Republic of Fiji,[b] is an island country in Melanesia, part of Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean. It lies about 1,100 nautical miles (2,000 km; 1,300 mi) north-northeast of New Zealand. Fiji consists of an archipelago of more than 330 islands—of which about 110 are permanently inhabited—and more than 500 islets, amounting to a total land area of about 18,300 square kilometres (7,100 sq mi). The most outlying island group is Ono-i-Lau. About 87% of the total population live on the two major islands, Viti Levu and Vanua Levu. About three-quarters of Fijians live on Viti Levu's coasts, either in the capital city of Suva, or in smaller urban centres such as Nadi (where tourism is the major local industry) or Lautoka (where the sugar-cane industry is dominant). The interior of Viti Levu is sparsely inhabited because of its terrain.[14]

search term: Pacific Islands Wikipedia Page

The islands in the Pacific Ocean are categorized into three major island groups: Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia. Depending on the context, the term Pacific Islands may refer to one of several concepts: (1) those Pacific islands whose people have Austronesian origins, (2) the Pacific islands once or currently colonized after 1500 CE, (3) the geographical region of Oceania, or (4) any island located in the Pacific Ocean.

The islands in the Pacific Ocean divided into three major groups

search term: Hurricane Maria Wikipedia Page

Effects
U.S territory
• Puerto Rico
• Death toll controversy

search term: seawalls Wikipedia Page

A seawall (or sea wall) is a form of coastal defense constructed where the sea, and associated coastal processes, impact directly upon the landforms of the coast. The purpose of a seawall is to protect areas of human habitation, conservation, and leisure activities from the action of tides, waves, or tsunamis.[1] As a seawall is a static feature, it will conflict with the dynamic nature of the coast and impede the exchange of sediment between land and sea.[2]

An example of a modern seawall in Ventnor on the Isle of Wight, England

search term: SIDS Wikipedia Page

Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), sometimes known as cot death or crib death, is the sudden unexplained death of a child of less than one year of age. Diagnosis requires that the death remain unexplained even after a thorough autopsy and detailed death scene investigation.[2] SIDS usually occurs between the hours of midnight and 9:00 a.m.,[3] or when the baby is sleeping.[4] There is usually no noise or evidence of struggle.[5] SIDS remains one of the leading causes of infant mortality in Western countries, constituting almost 1/3 of all post-neonatal deaths.[6]

search term: Micronesia Wikipedia Page

Micronesia (
UK: /ˌmaɪkrəˈniːziə/, US: /-ˈniːʒə/ ⓘ)[1] is a subregion of Oceania, consisting of approximately 2,000 small islands in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean. It has a close shared cultural history with three other island regions: Maritime Southeast Asia to the west, Polynesia to the east, and Melanesia to the south—as well as with the wider community of Austronesian peoples.

Subregions (Melanesia, Micronesia, Polynesia and Australasia), as well as sovereign and dependent islands of Oceania

search term: Puerto Rico Wikipedia Page

Puerto Rico[i] (abbreviated PR),[20] officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico,[b][j] is a self-governing Caribbean archipelago and island organized as an unincorporated territory of the United States under the designation of commonwealth. Located about 1,000 miles (1,600 km) southeast of Miami, Florida, between the Dominican Republic in the Greater Antilles and the U.S. Virgin Islands in the Lesser Antilles, it consists of the eponymous main island and numerous smaller islands, including Vieques, Culebra, and Mona. With approximately 3.2 million residents, it is divided into 78 municipalities, of which the most populous is the capital municipality of San Juan, followed by those within the San Juan metropolitan area.[20] Spanish and English are the official languages of the government,[22] though Spanish predominates.[23][24]

A 20th-century reconstruction of an 8th-century Taíno village, located at the spot in which their remains were discovered in 1975, in the aftermath of Hurricane Eloise[59]

search term: culture Wikipedia Page

Culture (/ˈkʌltʃər/ KUL-chər) is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, customs, capabilities, attitudes, and habits of the individuals in these groups.[1] Culture often originates from or is attributed to a specific region or location.

Pygmy music has been polyphonic well before their discovery by non-African explorers of the Baka, Aka, Efe, and other foragers of the Central African forests, in the 1200s, which is at least 200 years before polyphony developed in Europe. Note the multiple lines of singers and dancers. The motifs are independent, with theme and variation interweaving.[3] This type of music is thought to be the first expression of polyphony in world music.

search term: coastal erosion Wikipedia Page

Coastal erosion is the loss or displacement of land, or the long-term removal of sediment and rocks along the coastline due to the action of waves, currents, tides, wind-driven water, waterborne ice, or other impacts of storms.[1][2] The landward retreat of the shoreline can be measured and described over a temporal scale of tides, seasons, and other short-term cyclic processes.[3] Coastal erosion may be caused by hydraulic action, abrasion, impact and corrosion by wind and water, and other forces, natural or unnatural.[3]

Heavy marine erosion: cliff fall at Hunstanton in the east of England

search term: human populations Wikipedia Page

In world demographics, the world population is the total number of humans currently alive. It was estimated by the United Nations to have exceeded eight billion in mid-November 2022. It took around 300,000 years of human prehistory and history for the human population to reach a billion and only 218 more years to reach 8 billion.

High, medium, and low projections of the future human world population[1]

search term: coral bleaching Wikipedia Page

Coral bleaching is the process when corals become white due to loss of symbiotic algae and photosynthetic pigments. This loss of pigment can be caused by various stressors, such as changes in water temperature, light, salinity, or nutrients.[1][2] A bleached coral is not necessarily dead, and some corals may survive.[3] However, a bleached coral is under stress, more vulnerable to starvation and disease, and at risk of death.[4][3] The leading cause of coral bleaching is rising ocean temperatures due to climate change.[5][6]

Coral bleaching in ecosystems is a complex dynamic. Coral is able to slowly recover after experiencing bleaching, however, it is a slow process which typically results in re-bleaching.

search term: SRM Wikipedia Page

search term: human mobility Wikipedia Page

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search term: high risk Wikipedia Page

High Risk may refer to:

search term: moderate risk Wikipedia Page

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search term: SAI Wikipedia Page

Sai or SAI may refer to:

search term: living standards Wikipedia Page

Standard of living is the level of income, comforts and services available to an individual, community or society. A contributing factor to an individual's quality of life, standard of living is generally concerned with objective metrics outside an individual's personal control, such as economic, societal, political, and environmental matters.[1] Individuals or groups use the standard of living to evaluate where to live in the world, or when assessing the success of society.

Freedom from Want (1943) by painter Norman Rockwell

search term: anthropogenic climate forcing Wikipedia Page

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search term: Key Risks Wikipedia Page

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search term: solar geoengineering Wikipedia Page

Solar radiation modification (SRM) (or solar geoengineering) is a group of large-scale approaches to reduce global warming by increasing the amount of sunlight that is reflected away from Earth and back to space. It is not intended to replace efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions,[1] but rather to complement them as a potential way to limit global warming.[2]: 1489 SRM is a form of geoengineering.

Schematic with five proposed methods for solar radiation modification technologies

search term: RFC Wikipedia Page

search term: impact attribution Wikipedia Page

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search term: solar radiation management Wikipedia Page

Solar radiation modification (SRM) (or solar geoengineering) is a group of large-scale approaches to reduce global warming by increasing the amount of sunlight that is reflected away from Earth and back to space. It is not intended to replace efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions,[1] but rather to complement them as a potential way to limit global warming.[2]: 1489 SRM is a form of geoengineering.

Schematic with five proposed methods for solar radiation modification technologies

search term: Water distribution Wikipedia Page

Water distribution may refer to:

search term: MISI Wikipedia Page

In glaciology, an ice sheet, also known as a continental glacier,[2] is a mass of glacial ice that covers surrounding terrain and is greater than 50,000 km2 (19,000 sq mi).[3] The only current ice sheets are the Antarctic ice sheet and the Greenland ice sheet. Ice sheets are bigger than ice shelves or alpine glaciers. Masses of ice covering less than 50,000 km2 are termed an ice cap. An ice cap will typically feed a series of glaciers around its periphery.

One of Earth's two ice sheets: The Antarctic ice sheet covers about 98% of the Antarctic continent and is the largest single mass of ice on Earth. It has an average thickness of over 2 kilometers.[1]

search term: geoengineering Wikipedia Page

Geoengineering (also known as climate engineering or climate intervention) is the deliberate large-scale interventions in the Earth’s climate system intended to counteract human-caused climate change.[1] The term commonly encompasses two broad categories: large-scale carbon dioxide removal (CDR) and solar radiation modification (SRM). CDR involves techniques to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and is generally considered a form of climate change mitigation. SRM aims to reduce global warming by reflecting a small portion of sunlight (solar radiation) away from Earth and back into space. Although historically grouped together, these approaches differ substantially in mechanisms, timelines, and risk profiles, and are now typically discussed separately.[2]: 168[3] Some other large-scale engineering proposals—such as interventions to slow the melting of polar and alpine ice—are also sometimes classified as forms of geoengineering.

Planting trees is a nature-based way to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere; however, the effect may only be temporary in some cases.[9][10]

search term: Mitigation Wikipedia Page

Mitigation is the reduction of something harmful that has occurred or the reduction of its harmful effects. It may refer to measures taken to reduce the harmful effects of hazards that remain in potentia, or to manage harmful incidents that have already occurred. It is a stage or component of emergency management and of risk management. The theory of mitigation is a frequently used element in criminal law and is often used by a judge to try cases such as murder, where a perpetrator is subject to varying degrees of responsibility as a result of one's actions.[1][2]

search term: RKR Wikipedia Page

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search term: critical infrastructure Wikipedia Page

Critical infrastructure, or critical national infrastructure (CNI) in the UK, describes infrastructure considered essential by governments for the functioning of a society and economy and deserving of special protection for national security.[1] Critical infrastructure has traditionally been viewed as under the scope of government due to its strategic importance, yet there is an observable trend towards its privatization, raising discussions about how the private sector can contribute to these essential services.[2]

search term: SR15 Wikipedia Page

The Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C (SR15) was published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) on 8 October 2018.[1][2] The report, approved in Incheon, South Korea, includes over 6,000 scientific references, and was prepared by 91 authors from 40 countries.[1] In December 2015, the 2015 United Nations Climate Change Conference called for the report.[1] The report was delivered at the United Nations' 48th session of the IPCC to "deliver the authoritative, scientific guide for governments" to deal with climate change.[1] Its key finding is that meeting a 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) target is possible but would require "deep emissions reductions"[1] and "rapid, far-reaching and unprecedented changes in all aspects of society".[1] Furthermore, the report finds that "limiting global warming to 1.5 °C compared with 2 °C would reduce challenging impacts on ecosystems, human health and well-being" and that a 2 °C temperature increase would exacerbate extreme weather, rising sea levels and diminishing Arctic sea ice, coral bleaching, and loss of ecosystems, among other impacts.[1]

Cover of the Special Report on Global Warming of 1.5 °C

search term: ecosystem degradation Wikipedia Page

Environmental degradation is the deterioration of the environment through depletion of resources such as quality of air, water and soil; the destruction of ecosystems; habitat destruction; the extinction of wildlife; and pollution. It is defined as any change or disturbance to the environment perceived to be deleterious or undesirable.[1][2] The environmental degradation process amplifies the impact of environmental issues which leave lasting impacts on the environment.[citation needed]

More than eighty years after the abandonment of Wallaroo Mines (Kadina, South Australia), mosses remain the only vegetation in some areas of the site's grounds.

search term: weather sensitivity Wikipedia Page

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search term: financial constraints Wikipedia Page

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search term: climate system Wikipedia Page

Earth's climate system is a complex system with five interacting components: the atmosphere (air), the hydrosphere (water), the cryosphere (ice and permafrost), the lithosphere (earth's upper rocky layer) and the biosphere (living things).[1]: 1451 Climate is the statistical characterization of the climate system.[1]: 1450 It represents the average weather, typically over a period of 30 years, and is determined by a combination of processes, such as ocean currents and wind patterns.[2][3] Circulation in the atmosphere and oceans transports heat from the tropical regions to regions that receive less energy from the Sun. Solar radiation is the main driving force for this circulation. The water cycle also moves energy throughout the climate system. In addition, certain chemical elements are constantly moving between the components of the climate system. Two examples for these biochemical cycles are the carbon and nitrogen cycles.

The five components of the climate system all interact. They are the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the lithosphere and the biosphere.[1]: 1451

search term: RKRs Wikipedia Page

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search term: social cost of carbon Wikipedia Page

The social cost of carbon (SCC) is an estimate, typically expressed in dollars, of the economic damages associated with emitting one additional ton of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.[1] By translating the effects of climate change into monetary terms, the SCC provides policymakers with a tool to assess the potential impacts of actions that increase or reduce greenhouse gas emissions. It is commonly used in regulatory impact analyses to inform investment decisions, cost-benefit assessments, and climate policy development.[2][3][obsolete source]

search term: RFCs Wikipedia Page

search term: global warming level Wikipedia Page

A climate change scenario is a hypothetical future based on a "set of key driving forces".[1]: 1812 Scenarios explore the long-term effectiveness of mitigation and adaptation.[2] Scenarios help to understand what the future may hold. They can show which decisions will have the most meaningful effects on mitigation and adaptation.

Four climate change scenarios, based on 2015 data.[5][6] Left: emissions pathways following the scenarios of (1) no policy, (2) current policy, (3) meeting the governments’ announcements with constant country decarbonization rates past 2030, and (4) meeting the governments’ announcements with higher rates of decarbonization past 2030. Right: global temperatures, depending on the amount of greenhouse gases emitted in each of the four scenarios.

search term: social cost Wikipedia Page

Social cost in neoclassical economics is the sum of the private costs resulting from a transaction and the costs imposed on the consumers as a consequence of being exposed to the transaction for which they are not compensated or charged.[1] In other words, it is the sum of private and external costs. This might be applied to any number of economic problems: for example, social cost of carbon has been explored to better understand the costs of carbon emissions for proposed economic solutions such as a carbon tax.

A depiction of skeletons with sweetened beverages at Alfeñique fair in Mexico appears to criticize to social cost of sweetened beverage consumption.

search term: weather extremes Wikipedia Page

Extreme weather includes unexpected, unusual, severe, or unseasonal weather; weather at the extremes of the historical distribution—the range that has been seen in the past. Extreme events are based on a location's recorded weather history. The main types of extreme weather include heat waves, cold waves, droughts, and heavy precipitation or storm events, such as tropical cyclones. Extreme weather can have various effects, from natural hazards such as floods and landslides to social costs on human health and the economy. Severe weather is a particular type of extreme weather which poses risks to life and property.

A tornado is an example of an extreme weather event.

search term: weather fluctuations Wikipedia Page

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search term: peace Wikipedia Page

Peace is a state of harmony in the absence of hostility and violence. In a societal sense, peace is commonly used to mean a lack of conflict (such as war) and freedom from fear of violence between individuals or groups.[2]

Peace dove statue in Lomé, Togo, Africa. The dove and the olive branch are the most common symbols associated with peace.[1]

search term: RFC1 Wikipedia Page

NM_001204747
NM_002913
NM_001363495
NM_001363496

search term: climate attribution Wikipedia Page

The scientific community has been investigating the causes of current climate change for decades. After thousands of studies, the scientific consensus is that it is "unequivocal that human influence has warmed the atmosphere, ocean and land since pre-industrial times."[1]: 3 This consensus is supported by around 200 scientific organizations worldwide.[2] The scientific principle underlying current climate change is the greenhouse effect, which provides that greenhouse gases pass sunlight that heats the earth, but trap some of the resulting heat that radiates from the planet's surface. Large amounts of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane have been released into the atmosphere through burning of fossil fuels since the industrial revolution. Indirect emissions from land use change, emissions of other greenhouse gases such as nitrous oxide, and increased concentrations of water vapor in the atmosphere, also contribute to climate change.[1]

Brown bars indicate drivers that increase global warming, and blue bars indicate those that decrease global warming. Future global warming potential for long lived drivers like carbon dioxide emissions is not represented.

search term: species extinction Wikipedia Page

Extinction is the termination of an organism by the death of its last member. A taxon may become functionally extinct before the death of its last member if it loses the capacity to reproduce and recover. As a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa, where a species presumed extinct abruptly "reappears" (typically in the fossil record) after a period of apparent absence.

The thylacine (Thylacinus cynocephalus) is an example of a recently extinct species.

search term: soft limits Wikipedia Page

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search term: climate outcomes Wikipedia Page

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search term: managed systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: human capacity Wikipedia Page

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search term: salinity intrusion Wikipedia Page

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search term: Antarctica Wikipedia Page

Antarctica (/ænˈtɑːrktɪkə/ ⓘ)[note 1] is Earth's southernmost and least-populated continent. Situated almost entirely south of the Antarctic Circle and surrounded by the Southern Ocean (also known as the Antarctic Ocean), it contains the geographic South Pole. Antarctica is the fifth-largest continent, being about 40% larger than Europe, and has an area of 14,200,000 km2 (5,500,000 sq mi). Most of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, with an average thickness of 1.9 km (1.2 mi).

search term: economic impacts Wikipedia Page

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search term: structural modelling Wikipedia Page

In software engineering, a class diagram[1] in the Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a type of static structure diagram that describes the structure of a system by showing the system's classes, their attributes, operations (or methods), and the relationships among objects.

Hierarchy of UML 2.5 Diagrams, shown as a class diagram. The individual classes are represented just with one compartment, but they often contain up to three compartments.

search term: aquatic species Wikipedia Page

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search term: aggregate economic output Wikipedia Page

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search term: expert elicitation Wikipedia Page

In science, engineering, and research, expert elicitation is the synthesis of opinions of authorities of a subject where there is uncertainty due to insufficient data or when such data is unattainable because of physical constraints or lack of resources.[1] Expert elicitation is essentially a scientific consensus methodology. It is often used in the study of rare events.[2] Expert elicitation allows for parametrization, an "educated guess", for the respective topic under study. Expert elicitation generally helps quantify uncertainty.

search term: global temperatures Wikipedia Page

Climate is the long-term weather pattern in a region, typically averaged over 30 years.[1][2] More rigorously, it is the mean and variability of meteorological variables over a time spanning from months to millions of years. Some of the meteorological variables that are commonly measured are temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, and precipitation. In a broader sense, climate is the state of the components of the climate system, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere, cryosphere, lithosphere and biosphere and the interactions between them.[1] The climate of a location is affected by its latitude, longitude, terrain, altitude, land use and nearby water bodies and their currents.[3]

Worldwide Köppen climate classifications

search term: Syrian civil war Wikipedia Page

Syrian opposition and allied victory

Local, regional and international actors involved in the Syrian civil war prior to the fall of the Assad regime.

search term: Syrian uprising Wikipedia Page

Syrian uprising may refer to:

search term: adaptive responses Wikipedia Page

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search term: limits Wikipedia Page

Limit or Limits may refer to:

search term: Maladaptation Wikipedia Page

In evolution, a maladaptation (/ˌmælædæpˈteɪʃən/) is a trait that is (or has become) more harmful than helpful, in contrast with an adaptation, which is more helpful than harmful.[1] All organisms, from bacteria to humans, display maladaptive and adaptive traits. Like adaptation, maladaptation may be viewed as occurring over geological time, or within the lifetime of one individual or a group.

search term: assessed literature Wikipedia Page

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search term: climatic impact drivers Wikipedia Page

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search term: societal adaptation Wikipedia Page

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search term: Amazon Forest Wikipedia Page

The Amazon rainforest,[a] also called the Amazon jungle or Amazonia, is a moist broadleaf tropical rainforest in the Amazon biome that covers most of the Amazon basin of South America. This basin encompasses 7 million km2 (2.7 million sq mi),[2] of which 6 million km2 (2.3 million sq mi) are covered by the rainforest.[3] This region includes territory belonging to nine nations and 3,344 indigenous territories.

search term: risk severity Wikipedia Page

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search term: ecological disruption Wikipedia Page

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search term: economic activity Wikipedia Page

Prescriptive and policy

Three-sector circular flow of income diagram

search term: human migration Wikipedia Page

Human migration is the movement of people from one place to another,[1] with intentions of settling, permanently or temporarily, at a new location (geographic region). The movement often occurs over long distances and from one country to another (external migration), but internal migration (within a single country) is the dominant form of human migration globally.[2]: 21

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search term: critical infrastructures Wikipedia Page

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search term: marine cloud brightening Wikipedia Page

Marine cloud brightening (MCB), also known as marine cloud seeding or marine cloud engineering, may be a way to make stratocumulus clouds over the sea brighter, thus reflecting more sunlight back into space in order to limit global warming. It is one of two such methods that might feasibly have a substantial climate impact, but is lower in the atmosphere than stratospheric aerosol injection.[1] It may be able to keep local areas from overheating. If used on a large scale it might reduce the Earth's albedo; and so, in combination with greenhouse gas emissions reduction, limit climate change and its risks to people and the environment. If implemented, the cooling effect would be expected to be felt rapidly and to be reversible on fairly short time scales. However, technical barriers remain to large-scale marine cloud brightening, and it could not offset all the current warming.[2][3] As clouds are complicated and poorly understood, the risks of marine cloud brightening are unclear as of 2025.

Exhaust from ships causing more and brighter clouds above the ocean in 2006

search term: ember diagrams Wikipedia Page

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search term: SCC estimates Wikipedia Page

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search term: climate engineering Wikipedia Page

Geoengineering (also known as climate engineering or climate intervention) is the deliberate large-scale interventions in the Earth’s climate system intended to counteract human-caused climate change.[1] The term commonly encompasses two broad categories: large-scale carbon dioxide removal (CDR) and solar radiation modification (SRM). CDR involves techniques to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and is generally considered a form of climate change mitigation. SRM aims to reduce global warming by reflecting a small portion of sunlight (solar radiation) away from Earth and back into space. Although historically grouped together, these approaches differ substantially in mechanisms, timelines, and risk profiles, and are now typically discussed separately.[2]: 168[3] Some other large-scale engineering proposals—such as interventions to slow the melting of polar and alpine ice—are also sometimes classified as forms of geoengineering.

Planting trees is a nature-based way to remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere; however, the effect may only be temporary in some cases.[9][10]

search term: National Bureau of Economic Research Wikipedia Page

The National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER) is an American private nonprofit research organization "committed to undertaking and disseminating unbiased economic research among public policymakers, business professionals, and the academic community."[3] The NBER is known for proposing start and end dates for recessions in the United States.

search term: stratospheric aerosol geoengineering Wikipedia Page

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search term: key risks Wikipedia Page

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search term: exposure Wikipedia Page

Exposure or Exposures may refer to:

search term: human systems Wikipedia Page

The human body is the entire structure of a human being. It is composed of many different types of cells that together create tissues and subsequently organs and then organ systems.

Female (left) and male (right) adult human bodies photographed in ventral (above) and dorsal (below) perspectives. Naturally-occurring pubic, body, and facial hair have been deliberately removed to show anatomy.

search term: armed conflict Wikipedia Page

War is an armed conflict[a] between the armed forces of states, or between governmental forces and armed groups that are organized under a certain command structure and have the capacity to sustain military operations, or between such organized groups.[2]

The percentages of men killed in war in eight tribal societies, and Europe and the U.S. in the 20th century. (Lawrence H. Keeley, archeologist)

search term: Representative Key Risks Wikipedia Page

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search term: biodiversity hotspots Wikipedia Page

A biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with significant levels of biodiversity that is threatened by human habitation.[1][2][3] Norman Myers wrote about the concept in two articles in The Environmentalist in 1988 [4] and 1990,[5] after which the concept was revised following thorough analysis by Myers and others into "Hotspots: Earth's Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions"[6] and a paper published in the journal Nature, both in 2000.[7]

Map of the world's biodiversity hot spots, all of which are heavily threatened by habitat loss and degradation

search term: Syria Wikipedia Page

Syria,[e] officially the Syrian Arab Republic,[f][15] is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to the north, Iraq to the east and southeast, Jordan to the south, and Israel and Lebanon to the southwest. It is a republic under a transitional government and comprises 14 governorates. Damascus is the capital and largest city. With a population of 25 million across an area of 185,180 square kilometres (71,500 sq mi), it is the 57th-most populous and 87th-largest country.

Reconstructed sculpture of a bird from Tell Halaf

search term: Extreme weather events Wikipedia Page

Extreme weather includes unexpected, unusual, severe, or unseasonal weather; weather at the extremes of the historical distribution—the range that has been seen in the past. Extreme events are based on a location's recorded weather history. The main types of extreme weather include heat waves, cold waves, droughts, and heavy precipitation or storm events, such as tropical cyclones. Extreme weather can have various effects, from natural hazards such as floods and landslides to social costs on human health and the economy. Severe weather is a particular type of extreme weather which poses risks to life and property.

A tornado is an example of an extreme weather event.

search term: International Monetary Fund Wikipedia Page

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international financial institution and a specialized agency of the United Nations, headquartered in Washington, D.C. It consists of 191 member countries, and its stated mission is "working to foster global monetary cooperation, secure financial stability, facilitate international trade, promote high employment and sustainable economic growth, and reduce poverty around the world."[1] The IMF acts as a lender of last resort to its members experiencing actual or potential balance of payments crises.[9]

search term: vulnerable populations Wikipedia Page

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search term: Australasia Wikipedia Page

Australasia is a subregion of Oceania, comprising Australia, New Zealand (overlapping with Polynesia), and sometimes New Guinea and surrounding islands (overlapping with Melanesia). The term is used in a number of different contexts, including geopolitically, physiogeographically, philologically, and ecologically, where the term covers several slightly different but related regions.

Australia's concept of Australasia, which includes Australia, New Zealand and, in this case, Melanesia

search term: financial resources Wikipedia Page

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search term: economic growth Wikipedia Page

In economics, economic growth is an increase in the quantity and quality of the economic goods and services that a society produces. It can be measured as the increase in the inflation-adjusted output of an economy in a given year or over a period of time.[2]

Historic world GDP per capita

search term: deep uncertainty Wikipedia Page

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search term: decision makers Wikipedia Page

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search term: urgency Wikipedia Page

Urgency may refer to:

search term: litigation Wikipedia Page

A lawsuit is a proceeding by one or more parties (the plaintiff or claimant) against one or more parties (the defendant) in a civil court of law.[1] The archaic term "suit in law" is found in only a small number of laws still in effect today. The term "lawsuit" is used with respect to a civil action brought by a plaintiff (a party who claims to have incurred loss as a result of a defendant's actions) who requests a legal remedy or equitable remedy from a court. The defendant is required to respond to the plaintiff's complaint or else risk default judgment. If the plaintiff is successful, judgment is entered in favor of the plaintiff, and the court may impose the legal or equitable remedies available against the defendant (respondent). A variety of court orders may be issued in connection with or as part of the judgment to enforce a right, award damages or restitution, or impose a temporary or permanent injunction to prevent an act or compel an act. A declaratory judgment may be issued to prevent future legal disputes.

search term: standards Wikipedia Page

Standard may refer to:

search term: MCDA Wikipedia Page

Multiple-criteria decision-making (MCDM) or multiple-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) is a sub-discipline of operations research that explicitly evaluates multiple conflicting criteria in decision making (both in daily life and in settings such as business, government and medicine). It is also known as multi-attribute decision making (MADM),[1] multiple attribute utility theory, multiple attribute value theory, multiple attribute preference theory, and multi-objective decision analysis.

In this example a company should prefer product B's risk and payoffs under realistic risk preference coefficients.

search term: catalysing conditions Wikipedia Page

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search term: Uncertainty Wikipedia Page

Uncertainty or incertitude refers to situations involving imperfect or unknown information. It applies to predictions of future events, to physical measurements that are already made, or to the unknown, and is particularly relevant for decision-making. Uncertainty arises in partially observable or stochastic or complex or dynamic[disambiguation needed] environments, as well as due to ignorance, indolence, or both.[1] It arises in any number of fields, including insurance, philosophy, physics, statistics, economics, entrepreneurship, finance, medicine, psychology, sociology, engineering, metrology, meteorology, ecology and information science.

Situations often arise wherein a decision must be made when the results of each possible choice are uncertain.

search term: compensation Wikipedia Page

Compensation may refer to:

search term: Risk Management Wikipedia Page

Risk management is the identification, evaluation, and prioritization of risks,[1] followed by the minimization, monitoring, and control of the impact or probability of those risks occurring.[2] Risks can come from various sources (i.e, threats) including uncertainty in international markets, political instability, dangers of project failures (at any phase in design, development, production, or sustaining of life-cycles), legal liabilities, credit risk, accidents, natural causes and disasters, deliberate attack from an adversary, or events of uncertain or unpredictable root-cause.[3] Retail traders also apply risk management by using fixed percentage position sizing and risk-to-reward frameworks to avoid large drawdowns and support consistent decision-making under pressure.

Example of risk assessment: A NASA model showing areas at high risk from impact for the International Space Station

search term: Ambiguityvalue Wikipedia Page

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search term: Cynefin Wikipedia Page

The Cynefin framework (/kəˈnɛvɪn/ kuh-NEV-in)[1] is a conceptual framework used to aid decision-making.[2] Created in 1999 by Dave Snowden when he worked for IBM Global Services, it has been described as a "sense-making device".[3][4] Cynefin is a Welsh word for 'habitat'.[5]

Sketch of the Cynefin framework, by Edwin Stoop

search term: data sources Wikipedia Page

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search term: adaptive management Wikipedia Page

Adaptive management, also known as adaptive resource management or adaptive environmental assessment and management, is a structured, iterative process of robust decision making in the face of uncertainty, with an aim to reducing uncertainty over time via system monitoring. In this way, decision making simultaneously meets one or more resource management objectives and, either passively or actively, accrues information needed to improve future management. Adaptive management is a tool which should be used not only to change a system, but also to learn about the system.[1] Because adaptive management is based on a learning process, it improves long-run management outcomes. The challenge in using the adaptive management approach lies in finding the correct balance between gaining knowledge to improve management in the future and achieving the best short-term outcome based on current knowledge.[2] This approach has more recently been employed in implementing international development programs.

Figure 1: CMP Adaptive Management Cycle

search term: Bayesian methods Wikipedia Page

Bayesian inference (/ˈbeɪziən/ BAY-zee-ən or /ˈbeɪʒən/ BAY-zhən)[1] is a method of statistical inference in which Bayes' theorem is used to calculate a probability of a hypothesis, given prior evidence, and update it as more information becomes available. Fundamentally, Bayesian inference uses a prior distribution to estimate posterior probabilities. Bayesian inference is an important technique in statistics, and especially in mathematical statistics. Bayesian updating is particularly important in the dynamic analysis of a sequence of data. Bayesian inference has found application in a wide range of activities, including science, engineering, philosophy, medicine, sport, and law. In the philosophy of decision theory, Bayesian inference is closely related to subjective probability, often called "Bayesian probability".

A geometric visualisation of Bayes' theorem. In the table, the values 2, 3, 6 and 9 give the relative weights of each corresponding condition and case. The figures denote the cells of the table involved in each metric, the probability being the fraction of each figure that is shaded. This shows that P ( A | B ) P ( B ) = P ( B | A ) P ( A ) {\displaystyle P(A|B)P(B)=P(B|A)P(A)} i.e. P ( A | B ) = P ( B | A ) P ( A ) P ( B ) {\displaystyle P(A|B)={\frac {P(B|A)P(A)}{P(B)}}} . Similar reasoning can be used to show that P ( ¬ A | B ) = P ( B | ¬ A ) P ( ¬ A ) P ( B ) {\displaystyle P(\neg A|B)={\frac {P(B|\neg A)P(\neg A)}{P(B)}}} etc.

search term: Global Stocktake Wikipedia Page

The Global Stocktake is a fundamental component of the Paris Agreement which is used to monitor its implementation and evaluate the collective progress made in achieving the agreed goals. The Global Stocktake thus links implementation of nationally determined contributions (NDCs) with the overarching goals of the Paris Agreement, and has the ultimate aim of raising climate ambition.

search term: Overseas Development Institute Wikipedia Page

ODI Global (formerly Overseas Development Institute)[1] is a global affairs think tank, founded in 1960.

search term: motivation Wikipedia Page

Motivation is an internal state that propels individuals to engage in goal-directed behavior. It is often understood as a force that explains why people or other animals initiate, continue, or terminate a certain behavior at a particular time. It is a complex phenomenon and its precise definition is disputed. It contrasts with amotivation, which is a state of apathy or listlessness. Motivation is studied in fields such as psychology, motivation science, neuroscience, and philosophy.

Intrinsic motivation arises from internal factors, like enjoying an activity. Extrinsic motivation is based on external factors, like rewards obtained by completing an activity.

search term: national adaptation plans Wikipedia Page

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search term: Warsaw International Mechanism Wikipedia Page

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search term: interval methods Wikipedia Page

Interval arithmetic (also known as interval mathematics; interval analysis or interval computation) is a mathematical technique used to mitigate rounding and measurement errors in mathematical computation by computing function bounds. Numerical methods involving interval arithmetic can guarantee relatively reliable and mathematically correct results. Instead of representing a value as a single number, interval arithmetic or interval mathematics represents each value as a range of possibilities.

Tolerance function (turquoise) and interval-valued approximation (red)

search term: AI Wikipedia Page

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the capability of computational systems to perform tasks typically associated with human intelligence, such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and decision-making. It is a field of research in computer science that develops and studies methods and software that enable machines to perceive their environment and use learning and intelligence to take actions that maximize their chances of achieving defined goals.[1]

search term: Climate Policy Initiative Wikipedia Page

Climate Policy Initiative (CPI) is an independent non-profit research group and international climate policy organization based in San Francisco, California with other offices worldwide.[3][4] CPI is supported primarily by philanthropic organizations and government development finance.[5][6][3]

search term: indicators Wikipedia Page

Indicator may refer to:

search term: aggregation Wikipedia Page

Aggregation may refer to:

search term: Decision Analysis Wikipedia Page

Decision analysis (DA) is the discipline comprising the philosophy, methodology, and professional practice necessary to address important decisions in a formal manner. Decision analysis includes many procedures, methods, and tools for identifying, clearly representing, and formally assessing important aspects of a decision; for prescribing a recommended course of action by applying the maximum expected-utility axiom to a well-formed representation of the decision; and for translating the formal representation of a decision and its corresponding recommendation into insight for the decision maker, and other corporate and non-corporate stakeholders.

search term: climate change litigation Wikipedia Page

Climate change litigation, also known as climate litigation, is an emerging body of environmental law using legal practice to set case law precedent to further climate change mitigation efforts from public institutions, such as governments and companies. In the face of slow climate change politics delaying climate change mitigation, activists and lawyers have increased efforts to use national and international judiciary systems to advance the effort. Climate litigation typically engages in one of five types of legal claims:[2] Constitutional law (focused on breaches of constitutional rights by the state),[3] administrative law (challenging the merits of administrative decision making), private law (challenging corporations or other organizations for negligence, nuisance, etc., fraud or consumer protection (challenging companies for misrepresenting information about climate impacts), or human rights (claiming that failure to act on climate change is a failure to protect human rights).[4] Litigants pursuing such cases have had mixed results.

In 2019, the Supreme Court of the Netherlands confirmed that the government must cut carbon dioxide emissions, as climate change threatens human health.[1]

search term: nature restoration Wikipedia Page

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search term: business Wikipedia Page

Business is the practice of making one's living or making money by producing or buying and selling products (such as goods and services).[1][2][3][4] It is also "any activity or enterprise entered into for profit."[5]

Small business vendors at a public market

search term: procedural equity Wikipedia Page

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search term: decision analysis Wikipedia Page

Decision analysis (DA) is the discipline comprising the philosophy, methodology, and professional practice necessary to address important decisions in a formal manner. Decision analysis includes many procedures, methods, and tools for identifying, clearly representing, and formally assessing important aspects of a decision; for prescribing a recommended course of action by applying the maximum expected-utility axiom to a well-formed representation of the decision; and for translating the formal representation of a decision and its corresponding recommendation into insight for the decision maker, and other corporate and non-corporate stakeholders.

search term: Cynefin context Wikipedia Page

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search term: artificial intelligence Wikipedia Page

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the capability of computational systems to perform tasks typically associated with human intelligence, such as learning, reasoning, problem-solving, perception, and decision-making. It is a field of research in computer science that develops and studies methods and software that enable machines to perceive their environment and use learning and intelligence to take actions that maximize their chances of achieving defined goals.[1]

search term: prescriptive modelling Wikipedia Page

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search term: sensitivity analysis Wikipedia Page

Sensitivity analysis is the study of how the uncertainty in the output of a mathematical model or system (numerical or otherwise) can be divided and allocated to different sources of uncertainty in its inputs.[1][2] This involves estimating sensitivity indices that quantify the influence of an input or group of inputs on the output. A related practice is uncertainty analysis, which has a greater focus on uncertainty quantification and propagation of uncertainty; ideally, uncertainty and sensitivity analysis should be run in tandem.

Figure 1. Schematic representation of uncertainty analysis and sensitivity analysis. In mathematical modeling, uncertainty arises from a variety of sources - errors in input data, parameter estimation and approximation procedure, underlying hypothesis, choice of model, alternative model structures and so on. They propagate through the model and have an impact on the output. The uncertainty on the output is described via uncertainty analysis (represented pdf on the output) and their relative importance is quantified via sensitivity analysis (represented by pie charts showing the proportion that each source of uncertainty contributes to the total uncertainty of the output).

search term: Cognitive phaseResources Wikipedia Page

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search term: epistemic uncertainties Wikipedia Page

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search term: Extreme Events Wikipedia Page

Rare or extreme events are events that occur with low frequency, and often refers to infrequent events that have a widespread effect and which might destabilize systems (for example, stock markets,[2] ocean wave intensity[3] or optical fibers[4] or society[5]). Rare events encompass natural phenomena (major earthquakes, tsunamis, hurricanes, floods, asteroid impacts, solar flares, etc.), anthropogenic hazards (warfare and related forms of violent conflict, acts of terrorism, industrial accidents, financial and commodity market crashes, etc.), as well as phenomena for which natural and anthropogenic factors interact in complex ways (epidemic disease spread, global warming-related changes in climate and weather, etc.).

One way of judging which events are extreme involves selecting events that exceed a certain threshold of intensity (or frequency, or impact, etc., not shown). This threshold might select events lying above a certain percentile or beyond a certain number of standard deviations above average.[1] In the field of extreme event attribution, climate models then process the climate characteristics underlying the selected events for comparison to models of climates in which man-made climate drivers are excluded.

search term: climate change legislation Wikipedia Page

The politics of climate change results from different perspectives on how to respond to climate change. Global warming is driven largely by the emissions of greenhouse gases due to human activity, especially the burning of fossil fuels,[1] certain industries like cement and steel production, and land use for agriculture and forestry. Since the Industrial Revolution, fossil fuels have provided the main source of energy for economic and technological development. The centrality of fossil fuels and other carbon-intensive industries has resulted in much resistance to climate policy, despite widespread scientific consensus that such policy is necessary.

Heads of delegations at the 2015 United Nations Paris conference

search term: social governance Wikipedia Page

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search term: environmental governance Wikipedia Page

Environmental governance are the processes of decision-making involved in the control and management of the environment and natural resources. These processes includes government, business and civil society. Environmental governance may also refer to a concept in political ecology which promotes environmental policy that advocates for sustainable human activity (i.e. that governance should be based upon environmental principles).

search term: adaptive governance Wikipedia Page

Climate governance is the diplomacy, mechanisms and response measures "aimed at steering social systems towards preventing, mitigating or adapting to the risks posed by climate change".[1] A definitive interpretation is complicated by the wide range of political and social science traditions (including comparative politics, political economy and multilevel governance) that are engaged in conceiving and analysing climate governance at different levels and across different arenas. In academia, climate governance has become the concern of geographers, anthropologists, economists and business studies scholars.[2]

search term: scientific knowledge Wikipedia Page

Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe.[1][2] Modern science is typically divided into two – or three – major branches:[3] the natural sciences, which study the physical world, and the social sciences, which study individuals and societies.[4][5] While referred to as the formal sciences, the study of logic, mathematics, and theoretical computer science are typically regarded as separate because they rely on deductive reasoning instead of the scientific method as their main methodology.[6][7][8][9] Meanwhile, applied sciences are disciplines that use scientific knowledge for practical purposes, such as engineering and medicine.[10][11][12]

The Plimpton 322 tablet by the Babylonians records Pythagorean triples, written c.1800 BCE

search term: UNFCCC SCF Wikipedia Page

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search term: Global Commission Wikipedia Page

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search term: GIZ Wikipedia Page

Giz or GIZ may refer to:

search term: comparability Wikipedia Page

In mathematics, two elements x and y of a set P are said to be comparable with respect to a binary relation ≤ if at least one of x ≤ y or y ≤ x is true. They are called incomparable if they are not comparable.

Hasse diagram of the natural numbers, partially ordered by "x≤y if x divides y". The numbers 4 and 6 are incomparable, since neither divides the other.

search term: international climate finance Wikipedia Page

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search term: Math Wikipedia Page

Mathematics is a field of study that discovers and organizes methods, theories, and theorems that are developed and proved for the needs of empirical sciences and mathematics itself. There are many areas of mathematics, which include number theory (the study of numbers), algebra (the study of formulas and related structures), geometry (the study of shapes and spaces that contain them), analysis (the study of continuous changes), and set theory (presently used as a foundation for all mathematics).

This is the Ulam spiral, which illustrates the distribution of prime numbers. The dark diagonal lines in the spiral hint at the hypothesized approximate independence between being prime and being a value of a quadratic polynomial, a conjecture now known as Hardy and Littlewood's Conjecture F.

search term: Economics Wikipedia Page

Prescriptive and policy

Three-sector circular flow of income diagram

search term: Grantham Research Institute Wikipedia Page

The Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment is a research institute at the London School of Economics and Political Science founded in May 2008.[1]

search term: climate risk management Wikipedia Page

Climate risk management (CRM) is a term describing the strategies involved in reducing climate risk, through the work of various fields including climate change adaptation, disaster management and sustainable development. Major international conferences and workshops include: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, World Meteorological Organization - Living With Climate.

search term: knowledge systems Wikipedia Page

A knowledge-based system (KBS) is a computer program that reasons and uses a knowledge base to solve complex problems. Knowledge-based systems were the focus of early artificial intelligence researchers in the 1980s. The term can refer to a broad range of systems. However, all knowledge-based systems have two defining components: an attempt to represent knowledge explicitly, called a knowledge base, and a reasoning system that allows them to derive new knowledge, known as an inference engine.

search term: climate finance Wikipedia Page

Climate finance is an umbrella term for financial resources such as loans, grants, or domestic budget allocations for climate change mitigation, adaptation or resiliency. Finance can come from private and public sources. It can be channeled by various intermediaries such as multilateral development banks or other development agencies. Those agencies are particularly important for the transfer of public resources from developed to developing countries in light of UN Climate Convention obligations that developed countries have.[3]: 7

Investments in sustainable energy (clean energy) is an example of climate finance. It has increased due to high fossil fuel prices and growing policy support across various nations.[1] By 2025, investment in the energy transition had grown to about twice that for fossil fuels (oil, natural gas and coal).[2]

search term: learning Wikipedia Page

Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding, knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences.[1] The ability to learn is possessed by humans, non-human animals, and some machines; there is also evidence for some kind of learning in certain plants.[2] Some learning is immediate, induced by a single event (e.g. being burned by a hot stove), but much skill and knowledge accumulate from repeated experiences.[3] The changes induced by learning often last a lifetime, and it is hard to distinguish learned material that seems to be "lost" from that which cannot be retrieved.[4]

American students learning how to make and roll sushi

search term: Finance Wikipedia Page

Finance refers to monetary resources and to the study and discipline of money, currency, assets and liabilities.[a] As a subject of study, is a field of Business Administration which study the planning, organizing, leading, and controlling of an organization's resources to achieve its goals. Based on the scope of financial activities in financial systems, the discipline can be divided into personal, corporate, and public finance.

Bond issued by The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. Bonds are a form of borrowing used by corporations to finance their operations.

search term: robustness Wikipedia Page

Robustness is the property of being strong and healthy in constitution. When it is transposed into a system, it refers to the ability of tolerating perturbations that might affect the system's functional body. In the same line robustness can be defined as "the ability of a system to resist change without adapting its initial stable configuration".[1] "Robustness in the small" refers to situations wherein perturbations are small in magnitude, which considers that the "small" magnitude hypothesis can be difficult to verify because "small" or "large" depends on the specific problem.[citation needed] Conversely, "Robustness in the large problem" refers to situations wherein no assumptions can be made about the magnitude of perturbations, which can either be small or large.[2] It has been discussed that robustness has two dimensions: resistance and avoidance.[3]

search term: maladaptation Wikipedia Page

In evolution, a maladaptation (/ˌmælædæpˈteɪʃən/) is a trait that is (or has become) more harmful than helpful, in contrast with an adaptation, which is more helpful than harmful.[1] All organisms, from bacteria to humans, display maladaptive and adaptive traits. Like adaptation, maladaptation may be viewed as occurring over geological time, or within the lifetime of one individual or a group.

search term: social safety nets Wikipedia Page

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search term: risk management Wikipedia Page

Risk management is the identification, evaluation, and prioritization of risks,[1] followed by the minimization, monitoring, and control of the impact or probability of those risks occurring.[2] Risks can come from various sources (i.e, threats) including uncertainty in international markets, political instability, dangers of project failures (at any phase in design, development, production, or sustaining of life-cycles), legal liabilities, credit risk, accidents, natural causes and disasters, deliberate attack from an adversary, or events of uncertain or unpredictable root-cause.[3] Retail traders also apply risk management by using fixed percentage position sizing and risk-to-reward frameworks to avoid large drawdowns and support consistent decision-making under pressure.

Example of risk assessment: A NASA model showing areas at high risk from impact for the International Space Station

search term: adaptation finance Wikipedia Page

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search term: Mastrandrea Wikipedia Page

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search term: developed countries Wikipedia Page

A developed country, or advanced country,[3][4] is a country that has a high quality of life, developed economy, and advanced technological infrastructure relative to other less industrialized nations. Most commonly, the criteria for evaluating the degree of economic development are the gross domestic product (GDP), gross national product (GNP), the per capita income, level of industrialization, amount of widespread infrastructure and general standard of living.[5] Which criteria are to be used and which countries can be classified as being developed are subjects of debate. Different definitions of developed countries are provided by the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank; moreover, HDI ranking is used to reflect the composite index of life expectancy, education, and income per capita. In 2025, 40 countries fit all three criteria, while an additional 22 countries fit two out of three.

Developed countries (IMF)
Developing countries (IMF)
Least developed countries (UN)
Data unavailable
World map showing country classifications per the IMF[1] and the UN[2] (last updated April 2023). "Developed economies" according to this classification scheme are shown in blue. The map does not include classifications by the World Bank.

search term: climate services Wikipedia Page

Climate information services (CIS) entail the dissemination of climate data in a way that aids people and organizations in making decisions. CIS helps its users foresee and control the hazards associated with a changing and unpredictable climate.[1] It encompasses a knowledge loop that includes targeted user communities' access to, interpretation of, communication of, and use of pertinent, accurate, and trustworthy climate information, as well as their feedback on that use. Climate information services involve the timely production, translation and delivery of useful climate data, information and knowledge.[2]

search term: Fifth Assessment Report Wikipedia Page

The Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is the fifth in a series of such reports and was completed in 2014.[1] As had been the case in the past, the outline of the AR5 was developed through a scoping process which involved climate change experts from all relevant disciplines and users of IPCC reports, in particular representatives from governments. Governments and organizations involved in the Fourth Report were asked to submit comments and observations in writing with the submissions analysed by the panel.[2][3] Projections in AR5 are based on "Representative Concentration Pathways" (RCPs).[4] The RCPs are consistent with a wide range of possible changes in future anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions. Projected changes in global mean surface temperature and sea level are given in the main RCP article.

Average IPCC AR5 climate model projections for 2081–2100 relative to 1986–2005, under low and high emission scenarios

search term: uncertainty Wikipedia Page

Uncertainty or incertitude refers to situations involving imperfect or unknown information. It applies to predictions of future events, to physical measurements that are already made, or to the unknown, and is particularly relevant for decision-making. Uncertainty arises in partially observable or stochastic or complex or dynamic[disambiguation needed] environments, as well as due to ignorance, indolence, or both.[1] It arises in any number of fields, including insurance, philosophy, physics, statistics, economics, entrepreneurship, finance, medicine, psychology, sociology, engineering, metrology, meteorology, ecology and information science.

Situations often arise wherein a decision must be made when the results of each possible choice are uncertain.

search term: finance Wikipedia Page

Finance refers to monetary resources and to the study and discipline of money, currency, assets and liabilities.[a] As a subject of study, is a field of Business Administration which study the planning, organizing, leading, and controlling of an organization's resources to achieve its goals. Based on the scope of financial activities in financial systems, the discipline can be divided into personal, corporate, and public finance.

Bond issued by The Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. Bonds are a form of borrowing used by corporations to finance their operations.

search term: marginalised groups Wikipedia Page

Social exclusion or social marginalisation is the social disadvantage and relegation to the fringe of society. It is a term that has been used widely in Europe and was first used in France in the late 20th century.[1] In the EU context, the European Commission defines it as "a situation whereby a person is prevented (or excluded) from contributing to and benefiting from economic and social progress".[2] It is used across disciplines including education, sociology, psychology, healthcare, politics and economics.[3][4]

search term: residual risks Wikipedia Page

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search term: residual risk Wikipedia Page

The residual risk is the amount of risk or danger associated with an action or event remaining after natural or inherent risks have been reduced by risk controls.[1]

search term: UNEP Wikipedia Page

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is responsible for coordinating responses to environmental issues within the United Nations System.[1][2] It was established by Maurice Strong, its first director, after the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in June 1972. Its mandate is to provide leadership, deliver science and develop solutions on a wide range of issues, including climate change,[3] the management of marine and terrestrial ecosystems, and green economic development.[4] The organization also develops international environmental agreements; publishes and promotes environmental science and helps national governments achieve environmental targets.

search term: Insurance Wikipedia Page

Insurance is a means of protection from financial loss in which, in exchange for a fee, a party agrees to compensate another party in the event of a certain loss, damage, or injury. It is a form of risk management, primarily used to protect against the risk of a contingent or uncertain loss.

An advertisement for a fire insurance company Norwich Union, showing the amount of assets in coverage and paid insurance (1910)

search term: developing countries Wikipedia Page

A developing country is a country with a less-developed industrial base and a lower Human Development Index (HDI) relative to developed countries.[3] However, this definition is not universally agreed upon. There is also no clear agreement on which countries fit this category.[4][5] The terms low-and middle-income country (LMIC) and newly emerging economy (NEE) are often used interchangeably but they refer only to the economy of the countries. The World Bank classifies the world's economies into four groups, based on gross national income per capita: high-, upper-middle-, lower-middle-, and low-income countries. Least developed countries, landlocked developing countries, and small island developing states are all sub-groupings of developing countries. Countries on the other end of the spectrum are usually referred to as high-income countries or developed countries.

Advanced/developed markets by the IMF
Emerging/developing markets by the IMF
Least developed countries by the UN
Data unavailable
The latest classifications sorted by the IMF[1] and the UN[2]

search term: climate risks Wikipedia Page

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search term: knowledge Wikipedia Page

Knowledge is an awareness of facts, a familiarity with individuals and situations, or a practical skill. Knowledge of facts, also called propositional knowledge, is often characterized as true belief that is distinct from opinion or guesswork by virtue of justification. While there is wide agreement among philosophers that propositional knowledge is a form of true belief, many controversies focus on justification. This includes questions like how to understand justification, whether it is needed at all, and whether something else besides it is needed. These controversies intensified in the latter half of the 20th century due to a series of thought experiments called Gettier cases that provoked alternative definitions.

The owl of Athena, a symbol of knowledge in the Western world

search term: United Nations Environment Programme Wikipedia Page

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) is responsible for coordinating responses to environmental issues within the United Nations System.[1][2] It was established by Maurice Strong, its first director, after the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm in June 1972. Its mandate is to provide leadership, deliver science and develop solutions on a wide range of issues, including climate change,[3] the management of marine and terrestrial ecosystems, and green economic development.[4] The organization also develops international environmental agreements; publishes and promotes environmental science and helps national governments achieve environmental targets.

search term: climate science Wikipedia Page

Climatology (from Greek κλίμα, klima, "slope"; and -λογία, -logia) or climate science is the scientific study of Earth's climate, typically defined as weather conditions averaged over a period of at least 30 years.[1] Climate concerns the atmospheric condition during an extended to indefinite period of time; weather is the condition of the atmosphere during a relative brief period of time. The main topics of research are the study of climate variability, mechanisms of climate changes and modern climate change.[2][3] This topic of study is regarded as part of the atmospheric sciences and a subdivision of physical geography, which is one of the Earth sciences. Climatology includes some aspects of oceanography and biogeochemistry.

Köppen-Geiger climate classification (1980–2016)

search term: system transitions Wikipedia Page

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search term: political economy Wikipedia Page

Prescriptive and policy

Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Discours sur l'oeconomie politique, 1758

search term: Climate Resilient Development Wikipedia Page

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search term: societal choices Wikipedia Page

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search term: planetary health Wikipedia Page

Planetary Health is a multi- and transdisciplinary research paradigm, a new science for exceptional action,[1] and a global movement. Planetary health refers to "the health of human civilization and the state of the natural systems on which it depends." In 2015, the Rockefeller Foundation–Lancet Commission on Planetary Health launched the concept which is [2] currently being developed towards a new health science with over 25 areas of expertise.[3]

search term: societal transitions Wikipedia Page

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search term: sustainability transitions Wikipedia Page

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search term: sustainable aquaculture Wikipedia Page

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search term: adaptation gaps Wikipedia Page

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search term: energy transitions Wikipedia Page

An energy transition (or energy system transformation) is a major structural change to energy supply and consumption in an energy system. Currently, a transition to sustainable energy is underway to limit climate change. Most of the sustainable energy is renewable energy. Therefore, another term for energy transition is renewable energy transition. The current transition aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions from energy quickly and sustainably, mostly by phasing-down fossil fuels and changing as many processes as possible to operate on low carbon electricity.[2] A previous energy transition perhaps took place during the Industrial Revolution from 1760 onwards, from wood and other biomass to coal, followed by oil and later natural gas.[3][4]

Progress of current energy transition to renewable energy: Fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas still remain the world's primary energy sources, even as renewables are increasing in use.[1]

search term: greenhouse gas mitigation Wikipedia Page

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search term: media Wikipedia Page

search term: CRD pathways Wikipedia Page

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search term: societal transformation Wikipedia Page

1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias

search term: worldviews Wikipedia Page

A worldview (also world-view or world view) or Weltanschauung is the fundamental cognitive orientation of an individual or society encompassing the whole of the individual's or society's knowledge, culture, and point of view.[1] However, when two parties view the same real world phenomenon, their world views may differ, one including elements that the other does not.

In terror management theory, one's worldview helps to alleviate the anxiety caused by awareness of one's own mortality.

search term: gender equality Wikipedia Page

Gender equality, also known as sexual equality, gender egalitarianism, or equality of the sexes, is the state of equal ease of access to resources and opportunities regardless of gender, including economic participation and decision-making, and the state of valuing different behaviors, aspirations, and needs equally, also regardless of gender.[1] Gender equality is a core human rights that guarantees fair treatment, opportunities, and conditions for everyone, regardless of gender. It supports the idea that both men and women are equally valued for their similarities and differences, encouraging collaboration across all areas of life. Achieving equality doesn't mean erasing distinctions between genders, but rather ensuring that roles, rights, and chances in life are not dictated by whether someone is male or female.

Two Indian stamps which combine to symbolize gender equality

search term: Climate Resilient Development Pathways Wikipedia Page

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search term: GHG mitigation Wikipedia Page

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search term: SDG Wikipedia Page

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by all United Nations (UN) members in 2015, created 17 world Sustainable Development Goals (abbr. SDGs). The aim of these global goals is "peace and prosperity for people and the planet"[1][2] – while tackling climate change and working to preserve oceans and forests. The SDGs highlight the connections between the environmental, social and economic aspects of sustainable development. Sustainability is at the center of the SDGs, as the term sustainable development implies.

search term: Sustainable development Wikipedia Page

Sustainable development is an approach to growth and human development that aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.[1][2] The aim is to have a society where living conditions and resources meet human needs without undermining planetary integrity.[3][4] Sustainable development aims to balance the needs of the economy, environment, and society. The Brundtland Report in 1987 helped to make the concept of sustainable development better known.

Three visual representations of sustainability and its three dimensions. The left image shows sustainability as three intersecting circles. The top right is a nested approach where social and economic sustainability are contained within environmental sustainability. The bottom right shows pillars with the different components holding up sustainability.

search term: subsidies Wikipedia Page

A subsidy, subvention or government incentive is a type of government expenditure which redistributes from tax payers to individuals, households, or businesses.[1] Subsidies take various forms— such as direct government expenditures, tax incentives, soft loans, price support, and government provision of goods and services.[2] For instance, the government may distribute direct payment subsidies to individuals and households during an economic downturn in order to help its citizens pay their bills and to stimulate economic activity.

Fossil-fuel subsidies per capita, 2019. Fossil-fuel pre-tax subsidies per capita are measured in constant US dollars.

search term: biodiversity management Wikipedia Page

Biodiversity is the variability of life on Earth. It can be measured on various levels, for example, genetic variability, species diversity, ecosystem diversity and phylogenetic diversity.[1] Diversity is not distributed evenly on Earth—it is greater in the tropics as a result of the warm climate and high primary productivity in the region near the equator. Tropical forest ecosystems cover less than one-fifth of Earth's terrestrial area and contain about 50% of the world's species.[2] There are latitudinal gradients in species diversity for both marine and terrestrial taxa.[3]

An example of the biodiversity of fungi in a forest in North Saskatchewan (in this photo, there are also leaf lichens and mosses).

search term: accountability potential Wikipedia Page

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search term: institutional capacity Wikipedia Page

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search term: global regions Wikipedia Page

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search term: sustainable development priorities Wikipedia Page

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search term: systems transitions Wikipedia Page

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search term: solidarity Wikipedia Page

Solidarity or solidarism is an awareness of shared interests, objectives, standards, and sympathies creating a psychological sense of unity of groups or classes.[1][2] True solidarity means moving beyond individual identities and single issue politics.[3] Still, solidarity does not reject individuals and sees individuals as the basis of society.[4] It refers to the ties in a society that bind people together as one. The term is generally employed in sociology and the other social sciences, as well as in philosophy and bioethics.[5] It is a significant concept in Catholic social teaching and in Christian democratic political ideology.[6] Although closely related to the concept of charity, solidarity aspires to change whole systems, not merely to help individuals.[7][8]

A raised fist symbolizing solidarity of the worker movement

search term: institutional arrangements Wikipedia Page

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search term: industrial systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: LAPSSET Wikipedia Page

The Lamu Port-South Sudan-Ethiopia-Transport (LAPSSET) Corridor project, also known as Lamu corridor is a transport and infrastructure project in Kenya that,[1] when complete, will be the country's second transport corridor. Kenya's other transport corridor is the Northern Corridor, which links Mombasa to Uganda, passing through Nairobi and much of the Northern Rift. Some basic LAPSSET infrastructure has been built (a police station and harbor office in Lamu and lengthening of the Lamu airport runway). The construction of LAPSSET's main components (ports, pipelines, roads, railways) is currently ongoing with construction of the first berth at Lamu Port completed in October 2019.[2] Although the project is not formally stalled, its short to medium term goals are uncertain. Insecurity and political instability in Kenya are mostly to blame, as is the consideration of more commercially viable alternative pipeline options through Tanzania or Ethiopia. The low oil prices since 2015 also affect LAPSSET's commercial prospects.[3]

Map showing the scope of the LAPSSET Project within Kenya

search term: environmental quality Wikipedia Page

Environmental quality is considered by scientists and environmentalists as the properties and attributes of the environment, generalized or on a small scale, as they affect human beings and other organisms. It is a measure of the condition of an environment concerning the requirements of species and their needs or demands.

Overview of environmental quality

search term: change Wikipedia Page

Change, Changed or Changing may refer to the below. Other forms are listed at § See also

search term: values Wikipedia Page

In ethics and social sciences, value denotes the degree of importance of some thing or action, with the aim of determining which actions are best to do or what way is best to live (normative ethics), or to describe the significance of different actions. Value systems are proscriptive and prescriptive beliefs; they affect the ethical behavior of a person or are the basis of their intentional activities. Often primary values are strong and secondary values are suitable for changes. What makes an action valuable may in turn depend on the ethical values of the objects it increases, decreases, or alters. An object with "ethic value" may be termed an "ethic or philosophic good" (noun sense).[1]

Correlations between Moral foundations and Schwartz's basic values with values taken from[28]

search term: collective action Wikipedia Page

1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias

search term: SDG 5.00 Wikipedia Page

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search term: intergenerational equity Wikipedia Page

Intergenerational equity in economic, psychological, and sociological contexts, is the idea of fairness or justice between generations. The concept can be applied to fairness in dynamics between children, youth, adults, and seniors. It can also be applied to fairness between generations currently living and future generations.[1]

Grandfather and grandchild

search term: Urban green infrastructure Wikipedia Page

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search term: economic feasibility Wikipedia Page

A feasibility study is an assessment of the practicality of a project or system. A feasibility study aims to objectively and rationally uncover the strengths and weaknesses of an existing business or proposed venture, opportunities and threats present in the natural environment, the resources required to carry through, and ultimately the prospects for success.[1][2][3] In its simplest terms, the two criteria to judge feasibility are cost required and value to be attained.[4]

search term: planned relocation Wikipedia Page

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search term: ICZM Wikipedia Page

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), also known as Integrated Coastal Management (ICM) or Integrated Coastal Planning, is a coastal management process that considers geographical and political boundaries and focuses on sustainability. The concept was developed in 1992 during the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro and outlined in the proceedings of Agenda 21, Chapter 17.[1]

search term: Agenda 2030 Wikipedia Page

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by all United Nations (UN) members in 2015, created 17 world Sustainable Development Goals (abbr. SDGs). The aim of these global goals is "peace and prosperity for people and the planet"[1][2] – while tackling climate change and working to preserve oceans and forests. The SDGs highlight the connections between the environmental, social and economic aspects of sustainable development. Sustainability is at the center of the SDGs, as the term sustainable development implies.

search term: development trajectories Wikipedia Page

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search term: social choices Wikipedia Page

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search term: societal systems Wikipedia Page

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search term: systems Wikipedia Page

A system is a group of interacting or interrelated elements that act according to a set of rules to form a unified whole.[1] A system, surrounded and influenced by its environment, is described by its boundaries, structure and purpose and is expressed in its functioning. Systems are the subjects of study of systems theory and other systems sciences.

Systems can be isolated, closed, or open.

search term: dryland regions Wikipedia Page

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search term: pastoralism Wikipedia Page

Pastoralism is a form of animal husbandry where domesticated animals (known as "livestock") are released onto large vegetated outdoor lands (pastures) for grazing, historically by nomadic people who moved around with their herds.[2] The animal species involved include cattle, camels, goats, yaks, llamas, reindeer, horses, and sheep.[3]

Pastoral site at Tangnu village, Rohru in Himachal Pradesh, India

search term: mitigation costs Wikipedia Page

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search term: energy systems Wikipedia Page

Energy system may refer to:

search term: IEA Wikipedia Page

search term: social change Wikipedia Page

1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias

A set of social changes proposed for climate change mitigation

search term: local institutions Wikipedia Page

Local government is a generic term for the lowest tiers of governance or public administration within a particular sovereign state.

Meeting of Jyväskylä's city council in 1925

search term: carbon pricing Wikipedia Page

Carbon pricing (or CO2 pricing) is a method for governments to mitigate climate change, in which a monetary cost is applied to greenhouse gas emissions. This is done to encourage polluters to reduce fossil fuel combustion, the main driver of climate change. A carbon price usually takes the form of a carbon tax, or an emissions trading scheme (ETS) that requires firms to purchase allowances to emit.[1] The method is widely agreed to be an efficient policy for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Carbon pricing seeks to address the economic problem that emissions of CO2 and other greenhouse gases are a negative externality – a detrimental product that is not charged for by any market.

Emission trading and carbon taxes around the world (2021)
Carbon emission trading implemented or scheduled
Carbon tax implemented or scheduled
Carbon emission trading or carbon tax under consideration

search term: Green GDP Wikipedia Page

The green gross domestic product (green GDP or GGDP) is an index of economic growth with the environmental consequences of that growth factored into a country's conventional GDP. Green GDP monetizes the loss of biodiversity, and accounts for costs caused by climate change. Some environmental experts prefer physical indicators (such as "waste per capita" or "carbon dioxide emissions per year"), which may be aggregated to indices such as the "Sustainable Development Index".

Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao[21]

search term: green growth Wikipedia Page

Green growth is a concept in economic theory and policymaking used to describe paths of economic growth that are environmentally sustainable.[1][2][3] The term was coined in 2005 by the South Korean Rae Kwon Chung (de), a director at UNESCAP.[4] It is based on the understanding that as long as economic growth remains a predominant goal, a decoupling of economic growth from resource use and adverse environmental impacts is required. As such, green growth is closely related to the concepts of green economy and low-carbon or sustainable development. A main driver for green growth is the transition towards sustainable energy systems. Advocates of green growth policies argue that well-implemented green policies can create opportunities for employment in sectors such as renewable energy, green agriculture, or sustainable forestry.[5]

Wind turbine with workers - Boryspil, Ukraine

search term: oral histories Wikipedia Page

Oral history is the collection and study of historical information from people, families, important events, or everyday life using audiotapes, videotapes, or transcriptions of planned interviews. These interviews are conducted with people who participated in or observed past events and whose memories and perceptions of these are to be preserved as an aural record for future generations. Oral history strives to obtain information from different perspectives and most of these cannot be found in written sources. Oral history also refers to information gathered in this manner and to a written work (published or unpublished) based on such data, often preserved in archives and large libraries.[1][2][3][4] Knowledge presented by oral history is unique in that it shares the tacit perspective, thoughts, opinions and understanding of the interviewee in its primary form.[5]

An Evergreen Protective Association volunteer recording an oral history at Greater Rosemont History Day

search term: carbon tax Wikipedia Page

A carbon tax is a tax levied on the carbon emissions from producing goods and services. Carbon taxes are intended to make visible the hidden social costs of carbon emissions. They are designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by essentially increasing the price of fossil fuels. This both decreases demand for goods and services that produce high emissions and incentivizes making them less carbon-intensive.[1] When a fossil fuel such as coal, petroleum, or natural gas is burned, most or all of its carbon is converted to CO2. Greenhouse gas emissions cause climate change. This negative externality can be reduced by taxing carbon content at any point in the product cycle.[2][3][4][5]

A carbon tax would add a fee for the carbon dioxide emitted from this coal-fired power plant in Luchegorsk, Russia.

search term: Working Group III Wikipedia Page

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search term: green GDP Wikipedia Page

The green gross domestic product (green GDP or GGDP) is an index of economic growth with the environmental consequences of that growth factored into a country's conventional GDP. Green GDP monetizes the loss of biodiversity, and accounts for costs caused by climate change. Some environmental experts prefer physical indicators (such as "waste per capita" or "carbon dioxide emissions per year"), which may be aggregated to indices such as the "Sustainable Development Index".

Chinese Premier Wen Jiabao[21]

search term: IISD Wikipedia Page

IISD is an acronym that may refer to:

search term: feasibility assessment Wikipedia Page

The page "Feasibility assessment" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: institutional barriers Wikipedia Page

The page "Institutional barriers" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: ecosystem connectivity Wikipedia Page

The page "Ecosystem connectivity" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: CRD Wikipedia Page

CRD or crd may refer to:

search term: mitigation options Wikipedia Page

The page "Mitigation options" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: planetary boundaries Wikipedia Page

Planetary boundaries are a framework to describe limits to the impacts of human activities on the Earth system. Beyond these limits, the environment may not be able to continue to self-regulate. This would mean the Earth system would leave the period of stability of the Holocene, in which human society developed.[2][3][4]

The "Planetary Boundaries (PBs) diagram visually represents the current status of the nine PB processes that regulate our planet's health. Each process is quantified by one or more control variables based on observational data, model simulations and expert opinions." 2025.[1]

search term: greenhouse gas emissions Wikipedia Page

Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from human activities intensify the greenhouse effect. This contributes to climate change. Carbon dioxide (CO2), from burning fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas, is the main cause of climate change. The largest annual emissions are from China followed by the United States. The United States has higher emissions per capita. The main producers fueling the emissions globally are large oil and gas companies. Emissions from human activities have increased atmospheric carbon dioxide by about 50% over pre-industrial levels. The growing levels of emissions have varied, but have been consistent among all greenhouse gases. Emissions in the 2010s averaged 56 billion tons a year, higher than any decade before.[2] Total cumulative emissions from 1870 to 2022 were 703 GtC (2575 GtCO2), of which 484±20 GtC (1773±73 GtCO2) from fossil fuels and industry, and 219±60 GtC (802±220 GtCO2) from land use change. Land-use change, such as deforestation, caused about 31% of cumulative emissions over 1870–2022, coal 32%, oil 24%, and gas 10%.[3][4]

Greenhouse gas emissions per person in the highest-emitting countries.[1] Areas of rectangles represent total emissions for each country.

search term: shared socioeconomic pathways Wikipedia Page

Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) are climate change scenarios of projected socioeconomic global changes up to 2100 as defined in the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report on climate change in 2021.[2] They are used to derive greenhouse gas emissions scenarios with different climate policies.[3][4][5] The SSPs provide narratives describing alternative socio-economic developments. These storylines are a qualitative description of logic relating elements of the narratives to each other.[3] In terms of quantitative elements, they provide data accompanying the scenarios on national population, urbanization and GDP (per capita).[6] The SSPs can be quantified with various Integrated Assessment Models (IAMs) to explore possible future pathways both with regards to socioeconomic and climate pathways.[4][5][6]

Predicted atmospheric CO₂ concentrations for different shared socioeconomic pathways (SSPs) across the 21st century (projected by MAGICC7, a simple/reduced complexity climate model). Each data point represents an average of simulated values generated from five integrated assessment models.[1]

search term: sustainability Wikipedia Page

Sustainability (from the latin sustinere - hold up, hold upright; furnish with means of support; bear, undergo, endure) is the ability to continue over a long period of time.[1][2] In modern usage it generally refers to a state in which the environment, economy, and society will continue to exist over a long period of time.[3] Many definitions emphasize the environmental dimension.[4][5] This can include addressing key environmental problems, such as climate change and biodiversity loss. The idea of sustainability can guide decisions at the global, national, organizational, and individual levels.[6] A related concept is that of sustainable development, and the terms are often used to mean the same thing.[7] UNESCO distinguishes the two like this: "Sustainability is often thought of as a long-term goal (i.e. a more sustainable world), while sustainable development refers to the many processes and pathways to achieve it."[8]

Three visual representations of sustainability and its three dimensions. The left image shows sustainability as three intersecting circles. The top right is a nested approach where social and economic sustainability are contained within environmental sustainability. The bottom right shows pillars with the different components holding up sustainability.

search term: synergies Wikipedia Page

Synergy is the concept that a combined effect of two or more entities is greater than the sum of their individual effects. The term synergy comes from the Attic Greek word συνεργία synergia[1] from synergos, συνεργός, meaning "working together". Synergy is similar in concept to emergence.

search term: climate action Wikipedia Page

Climate action (or climate change action) refers to a range of activities, mechanisms, policy instruments, and so forth that aim at reducing the severity of human-induced climate change and its impacts. "More climate action" is a central demand of the climate movement.[1] Climate inaction is the absence of climate action.

search term: CRDPs Wikipedia Page

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search term: sustainable development Wikipedia Page

Sustainable development is an approach to growth and human development that aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.[1][2] The aim is to have a society where living conditions and resources meet human needs without undermining planetary integrity.[3][4] Sustainable development aims to balance the needs of the economy, environment, and society. The Brundtland Report in 1987 helped to make the concept of sustainable development better known.

Three visual representations of sustainability and its three dimensions. The left image shows sustainability as three intersecting circles. The top right is a nested approach where social and economic sustainability are contained within environmental sustainability. The bottom right shows pillars with the different components holding up sustainability.

search term: innovation Wikipedia Page

Innovation is the practical implementation of ideas that result in the introduction of new goods or services or improvement in offering goods or services.[1] ISO TC 279 in the standard ISO 56000:2020 defines innovation as "a new or changed entity, realizing or redistributing value".[2] Others have different definitions; a common element in the definitions is a focus on newness, improvement, and spread of ideas or technologies.

Thomas Edison with phonograph in the late 1870s. Edison was one of the most prolific inventors in history, holding 1,093 U.S. patents in his name.

search term: social movements Wikipedia Page

1800s: Martineau · Tocqueville · Marx · Spencer · Le Bon · Ward · Pareto · Tönnies · Veblen · Simmel · Durkheim · Addams · Mead · Weber · Du Bois · Mannheim · Elias

Satirical engraving of Wilkes by William Hogarth. Wilkes is holding two editions of The North Briton.

search term: IPCC Special Report Wikipedia Page

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search term: social justice Wikipedia Page

Social justice is justice in relation to the distribution of wealth, opportunities, and privileges within a society where individuals' rights are recognized and protected.[1][2] In Western and Asian cultures, the concept of social justice has often referred to the process of ensuring that individuals fulfill their societal roles and receive their due from society.[3][4][5] In the current movements for social justice, the emphasis has been on the breaking of barriers for social mobility, the creation of safety nets, and economic justice.[6][7][8][9][10][excessive citations] Social justice assigns rights and duties in the institutions of society, which enables people to receive the basic benefits and burdens of cooperation. The relevant institutions often include taxation, social insurance, public health, public school, public services, labor law and regulation of markets, to ensure distribution of wealth, and equal opportunity.[11]

An artist's rendering of what Plato might have looked like. From Raphael's early 16th century painting "Scuola di Atene".

search term: sustainable development goals Wikipedia Page

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by all United Nations (UN) members in 2015, created 17 world Sustainable Development Goals (abbr. SDGs). The aim of these global goals is "peace and prosperity for people and the planet"[1][2] – while tackling climate change and working to preserve oceans and forests. The SDGs highlight the connections between the environmental, social and economic aspects of sustainable development. Sustainability is at the center of the SDGs, as the term sustainable development implies.

search term: Climate resilient development Wikipedia Page

The page "Climate resilient development" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Wikipedia Page

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) is a major assessment of the human impact on the environment, called for by the United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 2000, launched in 2001 and published in 2005 with more than $14 million of grants. It popularized the term ecosystem services, the benefits gained by humans from ecosystems.

search term: economic development Wikipedia Page

Prescriptive and policy

search term: conservation agriculture Wikipedia Page

Conservation agriculture (CA) can be defined by a statement given by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations as "Conservation Agriculture (CA) is a farming system that can prevent losses of arable land while regenerating degraded lands.It promotes minimum soil disturbance (i.e. no-till farming), maintenance of a permanent soil cover, and diversification of plant species. It enhances biodiversity and natural biological processes above and below the ground surface, which contribute to increased water and nutrient use efficiency and to improved and sustained crop production."[1]

Conservation- or eco-agriculture involves multiple elements to protect wildlife.

search term: gender Wikipedia Page

Gender is the range of social, psychological, cultural, and behavioral aspects of being a man (or boy), woman (or girl), or third gender.[1][2] Although gender often corresponds to sex, a transgender person may identify with a gender other than their sex assigned at birth. Most cultures use a gender binary, in which gender is divided into two categories, and people are considered part of one or the other;[3][4][5] those who are outside these groups may fall under the umbrella term non-binary. Some societies have third genders (and fourth genders, etc.) such as the hijras of South Asia and two-spirit persons native to North America. Most scholars agree that gender is a central characteristic for social organization;[6] this may include social constructs (i.e. gender roles) as well as gender expression.[7][8][9]

Gender symbols intertwined: the red Venus symbol (female) and the blue Mars symbol (male)

search term: transparency Wikipedia Page

Transparency, transparence or transparent most often refer to:

search term: SDGs Wikipedia Page

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by all United Nations (UN) members in 2015, created 17 world Sustainable Development Goals (abbr. SDGs). The aim of these global goals is "peace and prosperity for people and the planet"[1][2] – while tackling climate change and working to preserve oceans and forests. The SDGs highlight the connections between the environmental, social and economic aspects of sustainable development. Sustainability is at the center of the SDGs, as the term sustainable development implies.

search term: civil society Wikipedia Page

Prescriptive and policy

International Civil Society Week 2019

search term: renewable energy Wikipedia Page

Renewable energy (also called green energy) is energy made from renewable natural resources that are replenished on a human timescale. The most widely used renewable energy types are solar energy, wind power, and hydropower. Bioenergy and geothermal power are also significant in some countries. Some also consider nuclear power a renewable power source, although this is controversial, as nuclear energy requires mining uranium, a nonrenewable resource. Renewable energy installations can be large or small and are suited for both urban and rural areas. Renewable energy is often deployed together with further electrification. This has several benefits: electricity can move heat and vehicles efficiently and is clean at the point of consumption.[1][2] Variable renewable energy sources are those that have a fluctuating nature, such as wind power and solar power. In contrast, controllable renewable energy sources include dammed hydroelectricity, bioenergy, or geothermal power.

Percentages of various types of sources in the top renewable energy-producing countries across each geographical region in 2023

search term: climate policy Wikipedia Page

The politics of climate change results from different perspectives on how to respond to climate change. Global warming is driven largely by the emissions of greenhouse gases due to human activity, especially the burning of fossil fuels,[1] certain industries like cement and steel production, and land use for agriculture and forestry. Since the Industrial Revolution, fossil fuels have provided the main source of energy for economic and technological development. The centrality of fossil fuels and other carbon-intensive industries has resulted in much resistance to climate policy, despite widespread scientific consensus that such policy is necessary.

Heads of delegations at the 2015 United Nations Paris conference

search term: local knowledge Wikipedia Page

Traditional knowledge (TK), indigenous knowledge (IK), folk knowledge, and local knowledge generally refers to knowledge systems embedded in the cultural traditions of regional, indigenous, or local communities.[1]

Tribal Colleges preserve and pass on both general knowledge and, through employing community Elders, traditional Indigenous knowledge. (Leech Lake Tribal College, Minnesota)

search term: SSPs Wikipedia Page

SSPS or SSpS or 'ssps' may refer to:

search term: GDP Wikipedia Page

Gross domestic product (GDP) is a monetary measure of the total market value[1] of all the final goods and services produced and rendered in a specific time period by a country[2] or countries.[3][4] GDP is often used to measure the economic activity of a country or region.[2] The major components of GDP are consumption, government spending, net exports (exports minus imports), and investment. Changing any of these factors can increase the size of the economy. For example, population growth through mass immigration can raise consumption and demand for public services, thereby contributing to GDP growth. However, GDP is not a measure of overall standard of living or well-being, as it does not account for how income is distributed among the population. A country may rank high in GDP but still experience jobless growth depending on its planned economic structure and strategies. Dividing total GDP by the population gives an idealized rough measure of GDP per capita.[5][3] Several national and international economic organizations, such as the OECD and the International Monetary Fund, maintain their own definitions of GDP.[6][7]

Map of world economies by the size of GDP (nominal, U.S. dollars) in 2024:[n 1]

> $20 trillion $10–20 trillion $5–10 trillion $1–5 trillion | $750 billion – $1 trillion $500–750 billion $250–500 billion $100–250 billion | $50–100 billion $25–50 billion $5–25 billion < $5 billion

search term: global greenhouse gas emission pathways Wikipedia Page

The page "Global greenhouse gas emission pathways" does not exist. You can create a draft and submit it for review or request that a redirect be created, but consider checking the search results below to see whether the topic is already covered.

search term: government Wikipedia Page

A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state.

World's states colored by systems of government:

Parliamentary systems: Head of government is elected or nominated by and accountable to the legislature.
Constitutional monarchy with a ceremonial monarch
Parliamentary republic with a ceremonial president
Parliamentary republic with an executive president

Presidential system: Head of government (president) is popularly elected and independent of the legislature.
Presidential republic

Hybrid systems:
Semi-presidential republic: Executive president is independent of the legislature; head of government is appointed by the president and is accountable to the legislature.
Assembly-independent republic: Head of government (president or directory) is elected by the legislature, but is not accountable to it.

Other systems:
Theocratic republic: Supreme Leader is both head of state and faith and holds significant executive and legislative power
Semi-constitutional monarchy: Monarch holds significant executive or legislative power.
Absolute monarchy: Monarch has unlimited power.
One-party state: Power is constitutionally linked to a single political party.
Military junta: Committee of military leaders controls the government; constitutional provisions are suspended.
Governments with no constitutional basis: No constitutionally defined basis to current regime, i.e., provisional governments or Islamic theocracies.
Dependent territories or places without governments

Note: this chart represents the de jure systems of government, not the de facto degree of democracy.